The DOI matches its Crossref record; 16 of the 16 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 7 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade
Abstract
This article describes basic facts regarding the Black-White test score gap over the first four years of school. Black children enter school substantially behind their White counterparts in reading and math, but including a small number of covariates erases the gap. Over the first four years of school, however, Blacks lose substantial ground relative to other races; averaging 0.10 standard deviations per school year. By the end of third grade, there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics. Blacks are falling behind in virtually all categories of skills tested, except the most basic. None of the explanations we examine, including systematic differences in school quality across races, convincingly explain the divergent academic trajectory of Black students.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using ECLS-K data through third grade, Fryer and Levitt show that Black students enter school behind Whites in reading and math, but with a parsimonious set of controls the initial gap is small; over the first four years of school Blacks lose substantial ground relative to Whites. By third grade a large Black-White test score gap remains that observable characteristics, school quality, teacher fixed effects, and changing test content do not convincingly explain.
Key findings
- Raw Black-White gaps widen from .663 SD in fall-kindergarten math to .882 SD by spring third grade, and from .400 SD to .771 SD in reading. With controls, the Black coefficient in math goes from -.099 SD in fall kindergarten to -.382 SD in spring third grade; in reading it goes from +.13 SD in fall kindergarten to -.282 SD in spring third grade. Blacks lose on average .10 SD per school year relative to Whites, totaling .283 SD in math and .41 SD in reading over the first four years.
- School quality becomes less convincing as an explanation when data extend through third grade. Including school fixed effects leaves two-thirds of the Black-White difference, and all ground lost between first and third grade is within rather than across schools; teacher fixed effects produce essentially unchanged results.
- By third grade, gaps appear in every skill tested in reading and math except the most basic tasks mastered by virtually all students. The largest gaps are in multiplication/division and literal inference: over 85% of White students mastered these subjects, but mastery rates are 15–20% lower for Blacks after controls.
- Hispanics gain ground relative to Whites despite worse initial conditions, while Asians’ early advantage is maintained or diminishes depending on subject; neither group shows the Black pattern of divergence.
Methods
- Data: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998, with tests in fall and spring kindergarten, spring first grade, and spring third grade; roughly 1,000 schools. Analysis samples are 11,201 observations for math and 10,540 for reading.
- Measures: standardized item response theory (IRT) math and reading scores, normalized to mean zero and SD one; controls include ECLS socioeconomic composite, number of children’s books and its square, gender, age, birth weight, mother’s age at first birth, and WIC participation.
- Analysis: weighted least squares cross-sectional regressions with race dummies; school and teacher fixed effects in Table 6; probit regressions for skill mastery in Table 8. Students missing test scores, race, or age are dropped.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors say a causal interpretation of covariate coefficients is likely inappropriate and view the variables as proxies for broader environmental and behavioral factors. They also state that explanations for Black students losing ground remain elusive, that school-quality evidence is not conclusive, and that the data cannot definitively determine whether Black students eventually master higher-order skills or never do.
- Stated: school fixed effects may also capture neighborhood effects because school assignment depends heavily on residential location, making school quality difficult to separate from neighborhood quality.
- Evident from the text: the analysis is observational and cross-sectional, uses data only through third grade, and relies on a limited set of proxies rather than direct measures of mechanisms such as parenting, peer norms, or instructional quality.
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Claims the paper makes
7 of 14 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Any optimism, however, is tempered by the fact that by the end of first grade (the last data used in Fryer and Levitt 2004) Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section V reports that Black students lost ground relative to White students between the start of kindergarten and the end of first grade: 0.156 standard deviations in math and 0.188 in reading after controls. Our copy does not express that loss as the equivalent of almost three months of schooling, so the claim’s magnitude in months is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, in stark contrast to previous studies, Fryer and Levitt (2004) are able to eliminate the black-white test score gap for incoming kindergartners with the inclusion of just a parsimonious set of controls.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
The Conclusion states that the gap among entering kindergartners could be essentially eliminated by controlling for a small number of observable characteristics. The paper specifies that this result applies to math and reading scores; a gap persisted on its general-knowledge test. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Fryer and Levitt (2004) tested six theories to explain why black kids lost ground relative to whites between fall kindergarten and spring first grade. The only hypothesis that received any empirical backing was differences in school quality.”
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
“Fryer and Levitt (2004) test a wide range of hypotheses, finding some empirical support for only one explanation: differential school quality across races.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source
The Abstract says there is suggestive evidence that school-quality differences may explain why Black children lost ground between the beginning of kindergarten and the end of first grade, while none of the other hypotheses tested received empirical backing. The section 'Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?' likewise calls the school-quality evidence consistent with the explanation but not definitive proof. The claim describes empirical backing, not proof. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Including school fixed effects eliminates twothirds of the difference in the learning trajectory of blacks and whites over the first two years of school.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?” (page not supplied), the authors report that adding school fixed effects reduces the estimated ground lost by Black students to less than one-third of its full-sample magnitude. That supports the paraphrase that fixed effects eliminate about two-thirds of the difference in test-score trajectories. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“It was shown that, relative to Whites attending the same schools, Blacks lost only a small amount of ground.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source
In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?” (page not provided), the paper reports that when Black and White students attending the same school are compared, the estimated ground lost by Black students shrinks to less than one-third of the full-sample estimate and is not statistically different from zero. This supports the claim that they lost only a small amount of ground relative to White students at the same schools. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Both Blacks and the Whites that attended schools with Blacks lost substantial amount on tests relative to Whites at other schools.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools” (page unavailable), the paper reports that Black students lost substantial ground relative to Whites in the full sample, while their relative loss was much smaller when compared with Whites at the same schools. This is consistent with weaker test-score trajectories at schools attended by Black students, but the paper does not establish that Whites at those schools themselves lost a substantial amount relative to Whites at other schools; it treats their possible lower trajectories as an unresolved explanation. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When we revisit this hypothesis armed with more years of data, the empirical support for school quality being the primary source of divergent Black-White test scores weakens, as shown in Table 6.”
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
“When the data are extended to cover an additional two years of schooling, however, the support for even this hypothesis weakens.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children on WIC do worse on the tests, suggesting that this variable is not capturing any real benefits the program might provide, but rather, the fact that eligibility for WIC is a proxy for growing up poor that the SES variable is not adequately capturing.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In stark contrast to the results on math, girls are not losing ground relative to boys in reading.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Like math, however, the reading gap widens substantially to .771 standard deviations by the end of third grade.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 32
- Probably not a substantial claim. 20
- The quote only partly states this claim. 18
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics experience a much smaller gap relative to Whites, and it does not grow.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the spring of third grade, over 85 percent of White students have mastered these subjects, but mastery rates are 15-20 percent lower for Blacks, even after controlling for other factors.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, however, the residual gap increases more than the raw gap contradicting this explanation.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also observe striking losses by girls relative to boys on math - over two-tenths of a standard deviation over the four year period.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In that specification, Blacks lose an average of .283 standard deviations in math and .41 in reading relative to Whites over the first four years of school.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mother's at the time of first birth all score better, although the benefit of entering school at a later age decreases steadily over time.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for observables, upon entry to school the gaps between Whites and Blacks tend to be small. This is true on both math and reading skills, and regardless of whether the skill is mastered by many of the students or relatively few of the students.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition and subtraction, which is challenging for many first graders regardless of race, the Black students lag significantly in first grade, but both Blacks and Whites achieve almost complete mastery by third grade.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Blacks lose substantial ground relative to whites within the same school and even in the same classrooms.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results appear to be similar across quintiles of the socio-economic status distribution and by family structure.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the raw data, Blacks lag Whites somewhat on virtually all types of questions, except those which are mastered by virtually all students of a given grade level. That is true both at entry to school, and even more so by the end of third grade.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for our parsimonious specification yields a coefficient on black of -.382 in the third grade math regression and -.249 in reading.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for whether or not English is spoken in the home does little to affect the initial gap or the trajectory of Hispanics.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In that subject, as well as some of the basic reading skills like 'words in context,' a few percent of Blacks fail to master the material even though almost all Whites do.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics in the West do not exhibit this same pattern; they remain steady versus Whites.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Socio-economic status and the number of children's books in the home are important predictors of test scores at each grade level.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The divergence in test scores relative to Whites is not apparent for either Hispanics or Asians.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using newly collected data on a recent cohort from the ECLS, we document substantial Black-White test score gaps in both math and reading that grow at approximately .10 standard deviations per year that children are in school.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One difference is that the Black children in our sample may be somewhat less responsive to changes in socio-economic status than Whites: a one-standard deviation improvement in socio-economic status for a Black child is associated with a .192 standard deviation increase in math scores, compared to .343 for a White child, but the results are more similar on reading scores.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results presented in the table, however, are essentially unchanged when we include teacher fixed effects, so that the differences are identified off of children in the very same classroom.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also explore whether the growing racial test score gap could be attributed to the inherent difficulties in testing achievement at especially young ages, or the possibility of increasing importance of home inputs for the development of higher-order thinking, but can provide no compelling evidence confirming these hypotheses either.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the end of third grade there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics.”
- Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · p. 5 · plain
“By the end of third grade, even after controlling for observables, the black-white test score gap is evident in every skill tested in reading and math except for the most basic tasks such as counting and letter recognition which virtually all students have mastered.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · p. 5 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Baseline | -.099 | -.382 | 0.28 | 0.13 | -0.282 | 0.412 |”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A onestandard deviation increase in the SES variable is associated with a .30 increase in fall kindergarten math scores and a .29 increase in spring first grade math scores.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The coefficient on the indicator variable black is .13 standard deviation above whites in the fall of kindergarten and .282 standard deviations below whites in the spring of third grade, or a loss of over .40 standard deviations for the typical Black child relative to the typical White.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to Blacks, Hispanics gain substantial ground relative to whites, despite the fact that they are plagued with many of the social problems that exist among blacks - low socioeconomic status, inferior schools, and so on.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evaluation | ------------- | ------------- | -.015 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Socioeconomic Status | 0.306 | 0.343 | 0.192 | 0.227 | 0.419 | 0.288 | 0.297 | 0.243 | 0.266 | 0.356 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Socioeconomic Status | 0.306 | 0.343 | 0.192 | 0.227 | 0.419 | 0.288 | 0.297 | 0.243 | 0.266 | 0.356 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Extrapolation | ------------- | ------------- | -.103 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Literal Inference | ------------- | -.004 | -.149 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Add/Subtract | -.000 | -.152 | -.039 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black | 0.13 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | -0.282 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Multiply/Divide | ------------- | -.027 | -.179 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Baseline | -.099 | -.382 | 0.28 | 0.13 | -0.282 | 0.412 |”
- Also stated in: § References · p. 29 · plain
“| Black | -0.099 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | -0.382 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- |”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § References · p. 29 · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of our regressions and summary statistics are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and we include dummies for missing data.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 21,260Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the data available thus far cannot speak definitively in determining which of these scenarios is more likely, the patterns in Table 8 do raise the specter of the latter scenario being possible.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results are not sensitive to normalizing the IRT scores to have a zero mean and standard deviation equal to one.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Prior research shows black children enter kindergarten lagging their white counterparts, and these differences grow throughout the school years (Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000, Carneiro and Heckman 2002, Coleman et. al 1966, Neal 2004, Phillips, Crouse, and Ralph 1998).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000
- Not matchedcites Carneiro and Heckman 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Neal 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to stress that a causal interpretation of the coefficients on the covariates is likely to be inappropriate; we view these particular variables as proxies for a broader set of environmental and behavioral factors.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of our findings are sensitive to other choices of weights, or not weighting at all.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that neither school quality nor tracking within schools is the primary explanation for black digression.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To the extent that current and lagged environments are highly correlated, controlling for current inputs is likely to yield similar estimates on average of the racial test score gap, and indeed that is the case.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arguing against such a hypothesis, as Rock and Stenner (2004) note, is the fact that test scores in the fall of kindergarten are strongly predictive of test scores in spring of third grade; if the two tests are capturing very different sets of skills, this would not be expected.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rock and Stenner (2004)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One point worth noting is that Blacks in the West are losing the great majority of this ground relative to Whites in the same classrooms, so differential school quality across races does not appear to be the answer.”
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
“The results presented in Tables 2 - 4 maintain the assumption that children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.
“to the extent our control variables adequately capture a child's environment, the residual gap after including all the covariates would remain constant.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
“The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) is a nationally representative sample of 21,260 children entering kindergarten in 1998.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Data appendix gives an outdated count of survey points
MinorThe main text says information had been gathered at five points and includes spring third grade in its account of the full-sample interviews. The data appendix instead says four points and lists interviews only through spring first grade.
“Thus far, information on these children has been gathered at five separate points in time. The full sample was interviewed in the fall and spring of kindergarten, spring of first grade, and spring of third grade.”
“Thus far, information on these children has been gathered at four separate points in time. The full sample was interviewed in the fall and spring of kindergarten and spring of first grade.”
White ordinality mean differs between Tables 7 and 8
MinorTable 8 reports the fall-kindergarten White mean for ordinality and sequence as .349, while Table 7 reports .291 as the White mean. In Table 7, .349 is the parenthesized standard deviation.
“| | [.349] | [.970] | [.999] |”
“| Ordinality, Sequence | .291 (.349)”
Citations
Cites
EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
Coleman, J. S. (1968) · Equity & Excellence in Education · doi:10.1080/0020486680060504 · Cited by 6,567
Carneiro, P. M., & Heckman, J. J. (2003) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.434544 · Cited by 1,325
Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School
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Self-citationDoes Head Start Make a Difference?
Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4406 · Cited by 927
Black American Students in An Affluent Suburb
Ogbu, J. U., & Davis, W. T. A. (2003) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410607188 · Cited by 654
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School Quality and the Longer-Term Effects of Head Start
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Does the Black–White test score gap widen after children enter school?
Phillips, M., Crouse, J. H., & Ralph, J. A. (1998) · Cited by 259
Why Has Black-White Skill Convergence Stopped?
Neal, D. A. (2005) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11090 · Cited by 219
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Phillips, Meredith. 2000. 'Understanding Ethnic Differences in Academic Achievement: Empirical Lessons from National Data.' In David Grissmer and Michael Ross (eds.), Analytic Issues in the Assessment of Student Achievement . pp. 103-132. Wachington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Cited by
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Items 201–300 of 423
Preschool Adequacy and Efficiency in California: Issues, Policy Options, and Recommendations
Karoly, L. A. (2009) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e647652010-001 · Cited by 15
Obama, Katrina, and the Persistence of Racial Inequality
Margo, R. A. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w21933 · Cited by 15
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Northrop, L. (2017) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.195 · Cited by 15
“…households and lower-SES households (G. J. Duncan & Magnuson, 2011; Farkas, 2011; Reardon, 2011); between White students and Black students (Fryer & Levitt, 2006), between girls and boys (Buchmann, DiPrete, & McDaniel, 2008), and between students with disabilities and students without…”
BackgroundFan, X., Linder, S. M., D’Amico, L. K., White, K. M., & Pawloski, T. (2021) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-021-01206-0 · Cited by 20
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BackgroundParenting beliefs and academic achievement across African-American and Caucasian family contexts
Mulvaney, M. K., & Morrissey, R. A. (2011) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2011.582950 · Cited by 14
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BackgroundA Community College Instructor Like Me: Race and Ethnicity Interactions in the Classroom
Fairlie, R. W., Hoffmann, F., & Oreopoulos, P. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w17381 · Cited by 15
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Daw, J., Guo, G., & Harris, K. M. (2015) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.02.011 · Cited by 13
“…frequently concludes that these social environments are major determinants of educational prospects in early childhood (Alexander, et al., 2007, Fryer and Levitt, 2006, KewalRamani, et al., 2007), adolescence (Camara and Schmidt, 1999, Hedges and Nowell, 1999, Kobrin, et al., 2007) and beyond…”
BackgroundThe Importance of Rank Position
Murphy, R., & Weinhardt, F. (2013) · London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) · Cited by 10
Equality of Opportunity: A progress report
Trannoy, A. (2016) · Revue d économie politique · doi:10.3917/redp.265.0621 · Cited by 11
“Black children, however, lose ground in the first years of schooling (Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2006)).”
BackgroundFamily Health, Children's Own Health, and Test Score Gaps
Andrews, R. J., & Logan, T. D. (2010) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.100.2.195 · Cited by 10
Defying expectations: Vocabulary growth trajectories of high performing language minority students
Hwang, J. K., Lawrence, J. F., & Snow, C. E. (2016) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-016-9703-3 · Cited by 10
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialChesmore, A. A., Winston, W., & Brady, S. S. (2015) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1007/s11256-015-0342-9 · Cited by 9
“African American students receive substantially lower grades and aptitude test scores (Duncan and Magnuson 2005; Fryer and Levitt 2006) and are less likely to graduate from high school and attend postsecondary education in comparison to their non-Hispanic white peers (National Center for Education Statistics 2012).”
Bueker, C. S. (2019) · Race Ethnicity and Education · doi:10.1080/13613324.2019.1599345 · Cited by 9
“The possession of this favored habitus and related cultural capital translate into meaningful and measurable longer-term outcomes, such as higher test scores and GPAs, and higher educational and professional aspirations (Dumais 2002; Fryer and Levitt 2006, 2013; Hart and Risley 1995; Sullivan 2001).”
BackgroundSingh, A. (2014) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 9
Souto-Maior, J. M., & Shroff, R. (2024) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v11.a6 · Cited by 9
“Second, student academic performance is influenced by a large set of factors, including student experiences in early years of schooling (Benson and Borman 2010; Clotfelter et al. 2009; Fryer and Levitt 2006) and out-of-school circumstances (Condron 2009; Chetty et al. 2020; Ainsworth 2002).”
BackgroundEarly Experience and Later Outcomes of Education: Schooling Transition Evidence from Indonesia
Wicaksono, T. Y., & Witoelar, F. (2018) · Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies · doi:10.1080/00074918.2018.1439156 · Cited by 8
Achievement Gap Estimates and Deviations from Cardinal ComparabilityPreprint
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Preventing Preschool Fadeout through Instructional Intervention in Kindergarten and First Grade.
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Is intervention fadeout a scaling artefact?
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Asian children’s verbal development: A comparison of the United States and Australia
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Race, Ethnicity, and Education Policy
Hochschild, J. L., & Shen, F. X. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566631.013.7 · Cited by 7
Li, G., & Yang, L. (2015) · Frontiers of Education in China · doi:10.1007/bf03397055 · Cited by 6
Niño, M., Angton, A., Norton-Smith, K., & Allison, K. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231241284942 · Cited by 5
“A robust literature, however, finds schools play a central role in legitimating and reinforcing social inequality (Baumert, Nagy, and Lehmann 2012; DiPrete and Eirich 2006; Fryer and Levitt 2006; Potter and Morris 2017).”
Heterogeneity in School Value Added and the Private Premium
Andrabi, T., Bau, N., Das, J., & Khwaja, A. I. (2024) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20221422 · Cited by 6
A Future for the National Education Longitudinal Program
Schneider, B., Saw, G. K., & Broda, M. (2016) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858416634686 · Cited by 6
“Two influential early childhood longitudinal studies focusing on relationships between racial and socioeconomic disparities among young students and their subsequent school achievement have been conducted by Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2006) and Reardon (2011, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodMiller, C. K., & Riccio, J. A. (2011) · Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness · Cited by 6
Black-White Disparities in Test Scores: Distributional Characteristics
Fernandes, R., Ha, I. “., McElroy, S. W., & Myers, S. L. (2016) · The Review of Black Political Economy · doi:10.1007/s12114-015-9230-5 · Cited by 6
“…2009; Bloom et al. 2008; Bok and Bowen 2000; Coleman et al. 1966; Crossland 1971; Downey 2008; Espenshade and Chung 2010; Fischer et al. 1996; Fryer and Levitt 2006; Gerald and Haycock 2006; Jencks and Phillips 1998; Niu and Tienda 2010; Orfield et al. 1996; Soares 2007; Also see Special…”
BackgroundCultural, Racial/Ethnic, and Linguistic Diversity and Identity
Nasir, N. S., Rowley, S. J., & Pérez, W. (2015) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · doi:10.4324/9781315688244.ch14 · Cited by 6
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The Income-Achievement Gap and Adult Outcome InequalityPreprint
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“For example, Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2006) study the evolution of the black-white achievement gap in the first few years of school by comparing standardized test scores.4 Neal (2006) uses standardized test scores for much of his discussion, yet he also recognizes 3The online appendix contains an…”
Resisting EducationPreprint
Carvalho, J., & Koyama, M. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2290006 · Cited by 6
Socioeconomic inequality at school entry: A cross-cohort comparison of families and schools
Engel, M., Claessens, A., Watts, T. W., & Stone, S. I. (2016) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.036 · Cited by 5
“…(e.g., age, education), and home conditions including home language and number of books in the home (Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994; Fryer & Levitt, 2006); (2) family participation in poverty reduction programs such as family use of Food Stamps and TANF (BenShalom et al., 2011);…”
BackgroundChen, S., Zhao, C., Chen, C., et al. (2022) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2021.2006383 · Cited by 5
Mazar, C. E. (2012) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) · Cited by 5
Regards critiques sur les discours politiques et scientifiques à l’égard de la réussite scolaire
Lapointe, C., & Sirois, P. (2011) · Éducation et francophonie · doi:10.7202/1004326ar · Cited by 5
THE EFFECTS OF SPANISH‐LANGUAGE BACKGROUND ON COMPLETED SCHOOLING AND APTITUDE TEST SCORES
Locay, L., Regan, T. L., & Diamond, A. M. (2012) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2012.00458.x · Cited by 7
“The effects of (a, g, b, h0) on schooling can be obtained by differentiating (15).”
InfluentialPrejudice and racial matches in employment
Bond, T. N., & Lehmann, J.-Y. K. (2018) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2018.02.004 · Cited by 5
“which simplifies to V bb 2 (q) = q(2ω − h) + h (15)”
BackgroundNational Longitudinal Studies of Kindergarten Children
West, J. (2017) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858417701684 · Cited by 5
“…gaps that had long been documented in studies of older children (Fryer & Levitt, 2010; Lee & Burkam, 2002; Penner & Paret, 2008; Rock & Stenner, 2005) and to track these gaps over the early school years (Fryer & Levitt, 2006; Murnane et al., 2006; Rathbun & West, 2004; Reardon & Galindo, 2008).”
BackgroundEducational Accountability, Value-Added Modeling, and the Origin of the Achievement Gap
Yeh, S. S. (2020) · Education and Urban Society · doi:10.1177/0013124519896823 · Cited by 5
The Black/White Skill Gap in Early Childhood: The Role of Parenting
Gibbs, B. G., & Downey, D. B. (2020) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/0731121419896812 · Cited by 6
Farrell, C. B., & Gilpin, A. T. (2021) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12523 · Cited by 5
The Race between Education and Technology: A Review Article
Guryan, J. (2009) · Journal of Human Capital · doi:10.1086/645089 · Cited by 5
“Recent research points strongly to an important role for investments in human capital in the years prior to traditional schooling (see, e.g., Neal and Johson 1996; Fryer and Levitt 2006; Chay, Guryan, and Mazumder 2009).”
BackgroundImproving Teacher Quality: A Sociological Presage
Schneider, B., Grogan, E., & Maier, A. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1576-9_8 · Cited by 5
“Differences in the achievement gap between whites and blacks have been attributed to lack of resources, especially within families and neighborhoods (Rothstein 2004; Fryer and Levitt 2006 ).”
BackgroundChapter 18 Antidiscrimination Law
Donohue, J. J. (2007) · Handbook of law and economics · doi:10.1016/s1574-0730(07)02018-x · Cited by 5
Preschool Adequacy and Efficiency in California: Issues, Policy Options, and Recommendations
Karoly, L. A. (2009) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/mg889 · Cited by 5
Spies, T. G. (2012) · OakTrust (Texas A&M University Libraries) · Cited by 5
Same Work, Lower Grade? Student Ethnicity and Teachers' Subjective AssessmentsPreprint
van Ewijk, R. J. G. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1402666 · Cited by 6
The Measurement of Student Ability in Modern Assessment Systems
Jacob, B. A., & Rothstein, J. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w22434 · Cited by 6
Achievement Estimates and Deviations from Cardinal ComparabilityPreprint
Nielsen, E. R. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2597668 · Cited by 5
“Fryer and Levitt[9] estimate black/white achievement gaps for early elementary school students of between 0.4 to 0.7.”
InfluentialPaying for Whose Performance? Teacher Incentive Pay and the Black–White Test Score Gap
Hill, A., & Jones, D. B. (2021) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737211001421 · Cited by 5
“” Other papers study purely group-based incentive programs: Goodman and Turner (2013) and Fryer (2013) find no evidence that a group incentive program has an impact on student outcomes.”
BackgroundInequality in literacy skills at kindergarten entry at the intersections of social programs and race
Rothbart, M. W., & Heflin, C. M. (2023) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106812 · Cited by 5
Curran, F. C., Pacheco, M. B., Boza, L., Harris-Walls, K., Tan, T. S., & Deig, A. W. (2024) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584241303498 · Cited by 9
“…has found that Black and Hispanic children enter kindergarten with lower test scores in mathematics and reading and that these differences in test scores increase throughout grade levels for Black students while remaining stable for Hispanic students (Fryer & Levitt, 2006; Reardon & Galindo, 2009).”
Evaluating the Effectiveness of the North Carolina Virtual Public Schools System
Banks, A., Bodkin, C. P., & Heissel, J. A. (2011) · Cited by 4
Greenfader, C. M. (2022) · Journal of Latinos and Education · doi:10.1080/15348431.2022.2043863 · Cited by 7
DO RURAL STUDENTS PERFORM AS WELL AS THEIR URBAN CLASSMATES? EVIDENCE FROM URBAN CHINA
Xu, B., Yu, Q., & Yuan, Y. (2024) · The Singapore Economic Review · doi:10.1142/s0217590824500206 · Cited by 4
Head Start, 4 years after completing the program
Kim, Y. (2011) · Education Economics · doi:10.1080/09645292.2011.607556 · Cited by 4
“In addition, the literature about a racial gap in test scores, for example, Fryer and Levitt (2006), shows that the achievement gap between white and black children emerges by the end of third grade, which cannot be explained by observable child, family or school characteristics.”
BackgroundFantuzzo, J. W., LeBoeuf, W. A., Brumley, B. P., Coe, K., McDermott, P. A., & Rouse, H. L. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.11.021 · Cited by 4
Race, Ethnicity, and Education PolicyPreprint
Hochschild, J. L., & Shen, F. X. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2476048 · Cited by 4
The Relationship between Race-Congruent Students and Teachers: Does Racial Discrimination Exist?Preprint
Nguyen, M. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3305463 · Cited by 4
Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score GapPreprint
Rothstein, J., & Wozny, N. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1722765 · Cited by 4
Marks, R. A., Woods, A. D., Mesite, L. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194251391828 · Cited by 3
The impact of computer-based tutorials on high school math proficiency
McDonough, I. K., & Tra, C. I. (2017) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s00181-016-1189-y · Cited by 4
“The choice of variables used to construct the index stems from the literature demonstrating a positive achievement gradient between mathematics and each of these measures (Hedges and Nowell 1995; Leahey and Guo 2001; Fryer and Levitt 2004, 2006, 2010; Hemphill and Vanneman 2011; Sohn 2012).”
MethodSoland, J. G., & Thum, Y. M. (2019) · Brown Digital Repository · doi:10.26300/b5as-wr12 · Cited by 3
Prevalence of undiagnosed dyslexia in African-American primary school children
Cassidy, L. D., Reggio, K., Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00204-8 · Cited by 4
“For example, data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study indicate that by the end of third grade there is a large black – white achievement gap in reading 11 .”
ResultFarid, S., Luqman, M., Tariq, S., et al. (2014) · Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences · Cited by 3
Low-Income Female Students and the Reversal of the Black-White Gap in High School Graduation
Clark, B., & Shi, Y. (2020) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858420915203 · Cited by 5
Using conjoint analysis to examine bias in referral to a behavior intervention program
Noltemeyer, A. L., Kunesh, C. E., Harper, E., & Davis, D. R. (2020) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22437 · Cited by 3
Predictors of Reading Achievement
Puccioni, J. (2015) · Literacy Research Theory Method and Practice · doi:10.1177/2381336915617598 · Cited by 5
“Studies have also demonstrated that significant gaps in reading achievement exist between Black and White children at the onset of kindergarten, and this gap continues to widen as children progress through elementary school (Fryer & Levitt, 2004, 2005).”
ResultExplaining university course grade gaps
Mongeon, K., Ulrick, S. W., & Giannetto, M. P. (2016) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s00181-016-1078-4 · Cited by 3
Fourteen Economic Facts on Education and Economic Opportunity
Schanzenbach, D. W., Boddy, D., Mumford, M., et al. (2016) · Cited by 3
Uneven Urbanscape: Spatial Structures and Ethnoracial Inequality
Ong, P. M., & González, S. R. (2019) · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Fryer, R. G.
- Affiliations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fryer, R. G.
- ORCID
- Fryer, R. G.
- Venue
- American Law and Economics Review
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-07-13
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 249-281
- ISSN
- 1465-7252 (ISSN-L)
- 1465-7260
- OpenAlex
- W2108478320
- Cited by
- 422
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 80.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Law and Economics Review (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- Black-White test score gap, racial achievement gap, early childhood education, first grade, third grade, reading achievement, mathematics achievement, academic trajectories, school quality, Black students, educational inequality
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