The DOI matches its Crossref record; 16 of the 16 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 7 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade
Abstract
This article describes basic facts regarding the Black-White test score gap over the first four years of school. Black children enter school substantially behind their White counterparts in reading and math, but including a small number of covariates erases the gap. Over the first four years of school, however, Blacks lose substantial ground relative to other races; averaging 0.10 standard deviations per school year. By the end of third grade, there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics. Blacks are falling behind in virtually all categories of skills tested, except the most basic. None of the explanations we examine, including systematic differences in school quality across races, convincingly explain the divergent academic trajectory of Black students.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Using ECLS-K data through third grade, Fryer and Levitt show that Black students enter school behind Whites in reading and math, but with a parsimonious set of controls the initial gap is small; over the first four years of school Blacks lose substantial ground relative to Whites. By third grade a large Black-White test score gap remains that observable characteristics, school quality, teacher fixed effects, and changing test content do not convincingly explain.
Key findings
- Raw Black-White gaps widen from .663 SD in fall-kindergarten math to .882 SD by spring third grade, and from .400 SD to .771 SD in reading. With controls, the Black coefficient in math goes from -.099 SD in fall kindergarten to -.382 SD in spring third grade; in reading it goes from +.13 SD in fall kindergarten to -.282 SD in spring third grade. Blacks lose on average .10 SD per school year relative to Whites, totaling .283 SD in math and .41 SD in reading over the first four years.
- School quality becomes less convincing as an explanation when data extend through third grade. Including school fixed effects leaves two-thirds of the Black-White difference, and all ground lost between first and third grade is within rather than across schools; teacher fixed effects produce essentially unchanged results.
- By third grade, gaps appear in every skill tested in reading and math except the most basic tasks mastered by virtually all students. The largest gaps are in multiplication/division and literal inference: over 85% of White students mastered these subjects, but mastery rates are 15–20% lower for Blacks after controls.
- Hispanics gain ground relative to Whites despite worse initial conditions, while Asians’ early advantage is maintained or diminishes depending on subject; neither group shows the Black pattern of divergence.
Methods
- Data: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998, with tests in fall and spring kindergarten, spring first grade, and spring third grade; roughly 1,000 schools. Analysis samples are 11,201 observations for math and 10,540 for reading.
- Measures: standardized item response theory (IRT) math and reading scores, normalized to mean zero and SD one; controls include ECLS socioeconomic composite, number of children’s books and its square, gender, age, birth weight, mother’s age at first birth, and WIC participation.
- Analysis: weighted least squares cross-sectional regressions with race dummies; school and teacher fixed effects in Table 6; probit regressions for skill mastery in Table 8. Students missing test scores, race, or age are dropped.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors say a causal interpretation of covariate coefficients is likely inappropriate and view the variables as proxies for broader environmental and behavioral factors. They also state that explanations for Black students losing ground remain elusive, that school-quality evidence is not conclusive, and that the data cannot definitively determine whether Black students eventually master higher-order skills or never do.
- Stated: school fixed effects may also capture neighborhood effects because school assignment depends heavily on residential location, making school quality difficult to separate from neighborhood quality.
- Evident from the text: the analysis is observational and cross-sectional, uses data only through third grade, and relies on a limited set of proxies rather than direct measures of mechanisms such as parenting, peer norms, or instructional quality.
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Claims the paper makes
75 Own result · 13 No basis given · 9 Own interpretation · 5 Own method · 4 Supported · 4 Sources not found · 3 Partly supported · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Any optimism, however, is tempered by the fact that by the end of first grade (the last data used in Fryer and Levitt 2004) Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section V reports that Black students lost ground relative to White students between the start of kindergarten and the end of first grade: 0.156 standard deviations in math and 0.188 in reading after controls. Our copy does not express that loss as the equivalent of almost three months of schooling, so the claim’s magnitude in months is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, in stark contrast to previous studies, Fryer and Levitt (2004) are able to eliminate the black-white test score gap for incoming kindergartners with the inclusion of just a parsimonious set of controls.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
The Conclusion states that the gap among entering kindergartners could be essentially eliminated by controlling for a small number of observable characteristics. The paper specifies that this result applies to math and reading scores; a gap persisted on its general-knowledge test. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Fryer and Levitt (2004) tested six theories to explain why black kids lost ground relative to whites between fall kindergarten and spring first grade. The only hypothesis that received any empirical backing was differences in school quality.”
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
“Fryer and Levitt (2004) test a wide range of hypotheses, finding some empirical support for only one explanation: differential school quality across races.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source
The Abstract says there is suggestive evidence that school-quality differences may explain why Black children lost ground between the beginning of kindergarten and the end of first grade, while none of the other hypotheses tested received empirical backing. The section 'Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?' likewise calls the school-quality evidence consistent with the explanation but not definitive proof. The claim describes empirical backing, not proof. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Including school fixed effects eliminates twothirds of the difference in the learning trajectory of blacks and whites over the first two years of school.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt 2004 source
In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?” (page not supplied), the authors report that adding school fixed effects reduces the estimated ground lost by Black students to less than one-third of its full-sample magnitude. That supports the paraphrase that fixed effects eliminate about two-thirds of the difference in test-score trajectories. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“It was shown that, relative to Whites attending the same schools, Blacks lost only a small amount of ground.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) source
In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?” (page not provided), the paper reports that when Black and White students attending the same school are compared, the estimated ground lost by Black students shrinks to less than one-third of the full-sample estimate and is not statistically different from zero. This supports the claim that they lost only a small amount of ground relative to White students at the same schools. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Both Blacks and the Whites that attended schools with Blacks lost substantial amount on tests relative to Whites at other schools.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools” (page unavailable), the paper reports that Black students lost substantial ground relative to Whites in the full sample, while their relative loss was much smaller when compared with Whites at the same schools. This is consistent with weaker test-score trajectories at schools attended by Black students, but the paper does not establish that Whites at those schools themselves lost a substantial amount relative to Whites at other schools; it treats their possible lower trajectories as an unresolved explanation. (LLM, conf=0.83)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When we revisit this hypothesis armed with more years of data, the empirical support for school quality being the primary source of divergent Black-White test scores weakens, as shown in Table 6.”
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
“When the data are extended to cover an additional two years of schooling, however, the support for even this hypothesis weakens.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · p. 21 · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children on WIC do worse on the tests, suggesting that this variable is not capturing any real benefits the program might provide, but rather, the fact that eligibility for WIC is a proxy for growing up poor that the SES variable is not adequately capturing.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In stark contrast to the results on math, girls are not losing ground relative to boys in reading.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Like math, however, the reading gap widens substantially to .771 standard deviations by the end of third grade.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 32
- Probably not a substantial claim. 20
- The quote only partly states this claim. 18
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Fryer and Levitt (2004) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics experience a much smaller gap relative to Whites, and it does not grow.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the spring of third grade, over 85 percent of White students have mastered these subjects, but mastery rates are 15-20 percent lower for Blacks, even after controlling for other factors.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, however, the residual gap increases more than the raw gap contradicting this explanation.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also observe striking losses by girls relative to boys on math - over two-tenths of a standard deviation over the four year period.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In that specification, Blacks lose an average of .283 standard deviations in math and .41 in reading relative to Whites over the first four years of school.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mother's at the time of first birth all score better, although the benefit of entering school at a later age decreases steadily over time.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for observables, upon entry to school the gaps between Whites and Blacks tend to be small. This is true on both math and reading skills, and regardless of whether the skill is mastered by many of the students or relatively few of the students.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition and subtraction, which is challenging for many first graders regardless of race, the Black students lag significantly in first grade, but both Blacks and Whites achieve almost complete mastery by third grade.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Blacks lose substantial ground relative to whites within the same school and even in the same classrooms.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results appear to be similar across quintiles of the socio-economic status distribution and by family structure.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the raw data, Blacks lag Whites somewhat on virtually all types of questions, except those which are mastered by virtually all students of a given grade level. That is true both at entry to school, and even more so by the end of third grade.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for our parsimonious specification yields a coefficient on black of -.382 in the third grade math regression and -.249 in reading.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for whether or not English is spoken in the home does little to affect the initial gap or the trajectory of Hispanics.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In that subject, as well as some of the basic reading skills like 'words in context,' a few percent of Blacks fail to master the material even though almost all Whites do.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hispanics in the West do not exhibit this same pattern; they remain steady versus Whites.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Socio-economic status and the number of children's books in the home are important predictors of test scores at each grade level.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The divergence in test scores relative to Whites is not apparent for either Hispanics or Asians.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using newly collected data on a recent cohort from the ECLS, we document substantial Black-White test score gaps in both math and reading that grow at approximately .10 standard deviations per year that children are in school.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One difference is that the Black children in our sample may be somewhat less responsive to changes in socio-economic status than Whites: a one-standard deviation improvement in socio-economic status for a Black child is associated with a .192 standard deviation increase in math scores, compared to .343 for a White child, but the results are more similar on reading scores.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results presented in the table, however, are essentially unchanged when we include teacher fixed effects, so that the differences are identified off of children in the very same classroom.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also explore whether the growing racial test score gap could be attributed to the inherent difficulties in testing achievement at especially young ages, or the possibility of increasing importance of home inputs for the development of higher-order thinking, but can provide no compelling evidence confirming these hypotheses either.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the end of third grade there is a large Black-White test score gap that cannot be explained by observable characteristics.”
- Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · p. 5 · plain
“By the end of third grade, even after controlling for observables, the black-white test score gap is evident in every skill tested in reading and math except for the most basic tasks such as counting and letter recognition which virtually all students have mastered.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · p. 5 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Baseline | -.099 | -.382 | 0.28 | 0.13 | -0.282 | 0.412 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A onestandard deviation increase in the SES variable is associated with a .30 increase in fall kindergarten math scores and a .29 increase in spring first grade math scores.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The coefficient on the indicator variable black is .13 standard deviation above whites in the fall of kindergarten and .282 standard deviations below whites in the spring of third grade, or a loss of over .40 standard deviations for the typical Black child relative to the typical White.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to Blacks, Hispanics gain substantial ground relative to whites, despite the fact that they are plagued with many of the social problems that exist among blacks - low socioeconomic status, inferior schools, and so on.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evaluation | ------------- | ------------- | -.015 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Socioeconomic Status | 0.306 | 0.343 | 0.192 | 0.227 | 0.419 | 0.288 | 0.297 | 0.243 | 0.266 | 0.356 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Socioeconomic Status | 0.306 | 0.343 | 0.192 | 0.227 | 0.419 | 0.288 | 0.297 | 0.243 | 0.266 | 0.356 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Extrapolation | ------------- | ------------- | -.103 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Literal Inference | ------------- | -.004 | -.149 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Add/Subtract | -.000 | -.152 | -.039 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black | 0.13 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | -0.282 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Multiply/Divide | ------------- | -.027 | -.179 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Math | -.132 | -.27 | -.375 | -0.138 | -0.243 | -.186 | -.249 | -.366 | -0.063 | -0.180 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reading | .094 | -.062 | -.249 | -0.156 | -0.343 | -.011 | -.067 | -.225 | -0.056 | -0.214 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“| Baseline | -.099 | -.382 | 0.28 | 0.13 | -0.282 | 0.412 |”
- Also stated in: § References · p. 29 · plain
“| Black | -0.099 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | -0.382 | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- | ---------- |”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § References · p. 29 · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of our regressions and summary statistics are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and we include dummies for missing data.”
plainn = 21,260- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the data available thus far cannot speak definitively in determining which of these scenarios is more likely, the patterns in Table 8 do raise the specter of the latter scenario being possible.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results are not sensitive to normalizing the IRT scores to have a zero mean and standard deviation equal to one.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Prior research shows black children enter kindergarten lagging their white counterparts, and these differences grow throughout the school years (Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000, Carneiro and Heckman 2002, Coleman et. al 1966, Neal 2004, Phillips, Crouse, and Ralph 1998).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo 2000
- Not matchedcites Carneiro and Heckman 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Neal 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to stress that a causal interpretation of the coefficients on the covariates is likely to be inappropriate; we view these particular variables as proxies for a broader set of environmental and behavioral factors.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of our findings are sensitive to other choices of weights, or not weighting at all.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conclude that neither school quality nor tracking within schools is the primary explanation for black digression.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To the extent that current and lagged environments are highly correlated, controlling for current inputs is likely to yield similar estimates on average of the racial test score gap, and indeed that is the case.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arguing against such a hypothesis, as Rock and Stenner (2004) note, is the fact that test scores in the fall of kindergarten are strongly predictive of test scores in spring of third grade; if the two tests are capturing very different sets of skills, this would not be expected.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rock and Stenner (2004)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One point worth noting is that Blacks in the West are losing the great majority of this ground relative to Whites in the same classrooms, so differential school quality across races does not appear to be the answer.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.
“The results presented in Tables 2 - 4 maintain the assumption that children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.
“to the extent our control variables adequately capture a child's environment, the residual gap after including all the covariates would remain constant.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The ECLS-K sample is nationally representative of children entering kindergarten in 1998.
“The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) is a nationally representative sample of 21,260 children entering kindergarten in 1998.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ II. The Data · p. 6
“Thus far, information on these children has been gathered at five separate points in time. The full sample was interviewed in the fall and spring of kindergarten, spring of first grade, and spring of third grade.”
§ Data Appendix · p. 22
“Thus far, information on these children has been gathered at four separate points in time. The full sample was interviewed in the fall and spring of kindergarten and spring of first grade.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ References · p. 33
“| | [.349] | [.970] | [.999] |”
§ References · p. 32
“| Ordinality, Sequence | .291 (.349)”
Citations
Cites
EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
Coleman, J. S. (1968) · Equity & Excellence in Education · doi:10.1080/0020486680060504 · Cited by 6,567
Carneiro, P. M., & Heckman, J. J. (2003) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.434544 · Cited by 1,325
Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2004) · Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/003465304323031049 · Cited by 936
Self-citationDoes Head Start Make a Difference?
Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4406 · Cited by 927
Black American Students in An Affluent Suburb
Ogbu, J. U., & Davis, W. T. A. (2003) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410607188 · Cited by 654
Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-1054 · Cited by 633
(2000) · Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) · Cited by 416
School Quality and the Longer-Term Effects of Head Start
Currie, J., & Thomas, D. (1998) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w6362 · Cited by 300
Does the Black–White test score gap widen after children enter school?
Phillips, M., Crouse, J. H., & Ralph, J. A. (1998) · Cited by 259
Why Has Black-White Skill Convergence Stopped?
Neal, D. A. (2005) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11090 · Cited by 219
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Phillips, Meredith. 2000. 'Understanding Ethnic Differences in Academic Achievement: Empirical Lessons from National Data.' In David Grissmer and Michael Ross (eds.), Analytic Issues in the Assessment of Student Achievement . pp. 103-132. Wachington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Whither opportunity?: rising inequality, schools, and children's life chances
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-5804 · Cited by 1,745
Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective*
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjz042 · Cited by 842
The Production of Cognitive Achievement in Children: Home, School, and Racial Test Score Gaps
Todd, P., & Wolpin, K. I. (2007) · Journal of Human Capital · doi:10.1086/526401 · Cited by 704
“2 See also related discussion in Phillips, Crouse, and Ralph (1998), Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2005), and Sec.”
Who Becomes an Inventor in America? The Importance of Exposure to Innovation*
Bell, A. G., Chetty, R., Jaravel, X., Petkova, N., & Reenen, J. M. V. (2018) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjy028 · Cited by 535
Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: An Intergenerational Perspective
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2018) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w24441 · Cited by 510
“We structure our empirical analysis using a statistical model of income inequality and intergenerational mobility in the tradition of Galton (1886) and Becker and Tomes (1979).”
Bloom, H. S., Hill, C. J., Black, A. R., & Lipsey, M. W. (2008) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345740802400072 · Cited by 477
“Although many studies evaluate such reforms (eg, Fryer & Levitt, 2006 ; Jencks & Phillips, 1998 ), little work has focused on how to assess whether their effects are large enough to be meaningful.”
BackgroundThe Hispanic-White Achievement Gap in Math and Reading in the Elementary Grades
Reardon, S. F., & Galindo, C. (2009) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831209333184 · Cited by 511
“Fryer and Levitt (2006) report estimated Hispanic-White gaps from kindergarten through third grade using these data.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMATERNAL EDUCATION, HOME ENVIRONMENTS, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
Carneiro, P., Meghir, C., & Parey, M. (2012) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1111/j.1542-4774.2012.01096.x · Cited by 433
How Important is Where you Start? Early Mathematics Knowledge and Later School Success
Claessens, A., & Engel, M. (2013) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811311500603 · Cited by 470
Recent Trends in Income, Racial, and Ethnic School Readiness Gaps at Kindergarten Entry
Reardon, S. F., & Portilla, X. A. (2016) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858416657343 · Cited by 462
Handbook of Research in Education Finance and Policy
Ladd, H. F. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203788684 · Cited by 424
An empirical analysis of ‘acting white’
Fryer, R. G., & Torelli, P. (2009) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.10.011 · Cited by 409
“in Gans (1962), upwardly mobile youth interested in education les” and “sissies.”
Self-citationNEET Youth in the Aftermath of the Crisis
Carcillo, S., Fernandez, R., Königs, S., & Minea, A. (2015) · OECD social employment and migration working papers · doi:10.1787/5js6363503f6-en · Cited by 399
Explaining Asian Americans’ academic advantage over whites
Hsin, A., & Xie, Y. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1406402111 · Cited by 316
“An Asian-American advantage in tested cognitive ability over whites has been noted for children as early as age 2 (8), although these initial cognitive advantages may gradually erode over time once children enter school (9, 10).”
BackgroundChildren's early approaches to learning and academic trajectories through fifth grade.
Li-Grining, C., Votruba-Drzal, E., Maldonado-Carreño, C., & Haas, K. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020066 · Cited by 322
Who Becomes an Inventor in America? The Importance of Exposure to Innovation
Bell, A., Chetty, R., Jaravel, X., Petkova, N., & Reenen, J. M. V. (2017) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w24062 · Cited by 292
Categorical Inequality: Schools As Sorting Machines
Domina, T., Penner, A. M., & Penner, E. K. (2017) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053354 · Cited by 310
“…careers persist—and in many cases, widen—as children develop toward young adulthood (Alexander et al. 2014, DiPrete & Eirich 2006, Baumert et al. 2012, Fryer & Levitt 2006, Potter & Morris 2016), students from relatively disadvantaged backgrounds benefit more from exposure to additional schooling…”
BackgroundA community college instructor like me: Race and ethnicity interactions in the classroom
Fairlie, R. W., Hoffmann, F., & Oreopoulos, P. (2014) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.104.8.2567 · Cited by 274
The Geography of Racial/Ethnic Test Score Gaps
Reardon, S. F., Kalogrides, D., & Shores, K. (2019) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/700678 · Cited by 282
U.S. High School Graduation Rates: Patterns and Explanations
Murnane, R. J. (2013) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.51.2.370 · Cited by 260
Dobbie, W., & Fryer, R. G. (2011) · American Economic Journal: Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.3.3.158 · Cited by 536
Self-citationBlack–White Achievement Gap and Family Wealth
Yeung, W. J., & Conley, D. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01127.x · Cited by 230
“Analyses by Hedges and Nowell (1998) showed that the gap had narrowed in the past three decades but the rate of decrease had slowed down since 1988.”
MethodHarming the Best: How Schools Affect the Black-White Achievement Gap
Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2008) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.20437 · Cited by 234
Fiscella, K., & Kitzman, H. (2009) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0533 · Cited by 224
The today and tomorrow of kids: Time preferences and educational outcomes of children
Castillo, M. E., Ferraro, P. J., Jordan, J. L., & Petrie, R. (2011) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.07.009 · Cited by 235
“Fryer and Levitt (2006) show a test score gap between blacks and whites that grows as children age.”
BackgroundResultTop of the Class: The Importance of Ordinal Rank
Murphy, R., & Weinhardt, F. (2018) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/restud/rdaa020 · Cited by 229
Replication and robustness in developmental research
Duncan, G. J., Engel, M., Claessens, A., & Dowsett, C. J. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037996 · Cited by 207
“To explore the robustness of these results, Fryer and Levitt (2006) estimated gap growth within demographic subgroups defined by child gender, socioeconomic quintile, family structure, region, urban/rural location, and school type (public vs. private; majority vs. minority Black enrollment)—some 21…”
BackgroundInfluentialValiandes, S. (2015) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2015.02.005 · Cited by 283
Racial-Ethnic Differences at the Intersection of Math Course-taking and Achievement
Riegle‐Crumb, C., & Grodsky, E. (2010) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040710375689 · Cited by 206
Johnson, R. C., & Jackson, C. K. (2019) · American Economic Journal Economic Policy · doi:10.1257/pol.20180510 · Cited by 185
Strand, S. (2014) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2013.767370 · Cited by 252
“…ethnic gaps in educational achievement should take account of this substantial overlap and, indeed increasingly, there is a move to explain ethnic group variations in attainment that remain after the effects of SES are statistically removed (e.g. Phillips et al. 1998; Fryer and Levitt 2004, 2006).”
BackgroundThe Link between Educational Expectations and Effort in the College-for-all Era
Domina, T., Conley, A. M., & Farkas, G. (2011) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/1941406411401808 · Cited by 178
The Academic Achievement Gap in Grades 3 to 8
Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., & Vigdor, J. L. (2006) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/rest.91.2.398 · Cited by 171
“…eighth graders was more than a full standard deviation (1.06) in math and 0.85 in reading.2 In a pair of studies using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS), Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2006) find a gap of 0.66 in math and 0.40 in reading at the beginning of kindergarten, as shown in table 1.”
InfluentialAffirmative action: What do we know?
Holzer, H. J., & Neumark, D. (2006) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.20181 · Cited by 166
Does Schooling Increase or Reduce Social Inequality?
Raudenbush, S. W., & Eschmann, R. (2015) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043406 · Cited by 183
“F or p er so na l u se o nl y. native differences in the capacity of high- and low-SES children to benefit from instruction are nil or small (Fryer & Levitt 2006).”
BackgroundArcidiacono, P., Aucejo, E. M., & Spenner, K. (2012) · IZA Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1186/2193-8997-1-5 · Cited by 155
“Fryer and Levitt (2006), using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study database, find that by the end of first grade, black children lost the equivalent of almost three months of schooling relative to whites.”
MethodThe Evolution of the Black-White Test Score Gap in Grades K–3: The Fragility of Results
Bond, T. N., & Lang, K. (2013) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/rest_a_00370 · Cited by 150
“These results are in line with those in Fryer and Levitt (2006) and our own from the ECLS-K, which we describe in section IIA.”
InfluentialGetting Beneath the Veil of Effective Schools: Evidence from New York City
Dobbie, W., & Fryer, R. G. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w17632 · Cited by 160
Self-citationSchool Quality and the Black-White Achievement Gap
Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2006) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w12651 · Cited by 147
An Empirical Analysis of 'Acting White'
Fryer, R. G., & Torelli, P. (2005) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11334 · Cited by 150
Self-citationMatthews, J. S., Kizzie, K., Rowley, S. J., & Cortina, K. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019616 · Cited by 143
Strand, S. (2010) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243451003732651 · Cited by 141
“age 7 (although Fryer & Levitt, 2006 do not give the same emphasis to this factor).”
BackgroundTesting and Social Stratification in American Education
Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134711 · Cited by 137
“These patterns are observed in kindergarten (Fryer & Levitt 2005), elementary school (KewalRamani et al. 2007), and middle and high school (Hedges & Nowell 1999).”
BackgroundThe Science of Reading and Its Educational Implications
Seidenberg, M. S. (2013) · Language Learning and Development · doi:10.1080/15475441.2013.812017 · Cited by 148
“The results from additional waves of data collection yielded the surprising finding that the size of the gap increased through grade 3 (Fryer & Levitt, 2006; see also Magnuson & Duncan, 2006).”
Resultvon Hippel, P., & Hamrock, C. (2019) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v6.a3 · Cited by 149
School effects and ethnic, gender and socio-economic gaps in educational achievement at age 11
Strand, S. (2014) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/03054985.2014.891980 · Cited by 130
“For example, Fryer and Levitt (2004) conclude that differences in school quality account for two-thirds of the growth in the Black–White gap between age 5 and age 7 (although Fryer & Levitt, 2006 do not give the same emphasis to this factor).”
BackgroundLongitudinal Effects of Group Music Instruction on Literacy Skills in Low-Income Children
Slater, J., Strait, D. L., Skoe, E., O’Connell, S. R., Thompson, E. C., & Kraus, N. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0113383 · Cited by 153
“Low socioeconomic status can affect the trajectory of reading development [4,5] through a combination of impoverished home language environment [6] and reduced access to print materials [7].”
Foundations for Young Adult Success: A Developmental Framework
Nagaoka, J., Farrington, C. A., Ehrlich, S. B., & Heath, R. D. (2015) · doi:10.59656/yd-g1389.001 · Cited by 115
Racial Inequality in the 21st Century: The Declining Significance of Discrimination
Fryer, R. G. (2010) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w16256 · Cited by 119
Self-citationOyserman, D., & Lewis, N. A. (2017) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12030 · Cited by 115
“…their degree attainment and performance on standardized tests of attainment and proficiency lags behind that of other students (American Academy of Arts & Sciences, 2001; Davis-Kean & Jager, 2014; Fryer & Levitt, 2006; Haskin & Rouse, 2005; Loeb & Bassok, 2008; National Science Foundation, 2009).”
BackgroundCan Tracking Raise the Test Scores of High-Ability Minority Students?
Card, D., & Giuliano, L. (2016) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20150484 · Cited by 111
“Although significant test score gaps have already emerged by age five (Fryer and Levitt 2006), recent studies show that racial disparities in the upper tail continue to widen as students progress through school (Hanushek and Rivkin 2009; Clotfelter et al. 2009).”
Human Capital and Education: The State of the Art in the Economics of EducationPreprint
BURGESS, S. M. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2769193 · Cited by 114
“In the US, elite ‘exam schools’ in New York or Boston are accessed by taking a competitive exam.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Roma/Non-Roma Test Score Gap in Hungary
Kertesi, G., & Kézdi, G. (2011) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.101.3.519 · Cited by 108
Jones, S. M., LaRusso, M. D., Kim, J. J., Kim, H. Y., Selman, R. L., Uccelli, P., Barnes, S. P., Donovan, S., & Snow, C. E. (2019) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2019.1615155 · Cited by 108
The Impoverished Brain: Disparities in Maternal Education Affect the Neural Response to Sound
Skoe, E., Krizman, J., & Kraus, N. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2102-13.2013 · Cited by 110
“…that our two groups had similar demographics, our findings highlight the potential for small differences in early auditory experiences to cascade into larger neural and cognitive gaps over time (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan, 1997; Haskins and Rouse, 2005; Fryer and Levitt, 2006; Stevens et al., 2009).”
ResultTesting for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2013) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.103.2.981 · Cited by 106
Self-citationThe Measurement of Student Ability in Modern Assessment Systems
Jacob, B. A., & Rothstein, J. (2016) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.30.3.85 · Cited by 108
Ethnicity and Educational Achievement in Compulsory Schooling
Dustmann, C., Machin, S. J., & Schönberg, U. (2010) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2010.02377.x · Cited by 102
Patterns of Literacy among U.S. Students
Reardon, S. F., Valentino, R. A., & Shores, K. (2012) · The Future of Children · doi:10.1353/foc.2012.0015 · Cited by 101
Assessed by a Teacher Like Me: Race and Teacher Assessments
Ouazad, A. C.-L. (2014) · Education Finance and Policy · doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00136 · Cited by 107
Ability Grouping Practices in Elementary School and African American/Hispanic Achievement
Lleras, C., & Rangel, C. (2008) · American Journal of Education · doi:10.1086/595667 · Cited by 100
“Recent empirical research suggests that while controlling for family socioeconomic status completely eliminates black-white reading achievement gaps at school entry, the gaps reemerge during the first few years of school and are quite substantial by the end of third grade (Fryer and Levitt 2006).”
BackgroundPaschall, K. W., Gershoff, E. T., & Kuhfeld, M. R. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0800-7 · Cited by 97
Are Achievement Gaps Related to Discipline Gaps? Evidence From National Data
Pearman, F. A., Curran, F. C., Fisher, B., & Gardella, J. (2019) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858419875440 · Cited by 107
Same work, lower grade? Student ethnicity and teachers’ subjective assessments
van Ewijk, R. J. G. (2011) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.05.008 · Cited by 97
“Although differences in background characteristics such as parental education and income inequality, and differences in school quality explain part of these gaps, a substantial part seems to remain unexplained (e.g. Fryer & Levitt, 2006 ).”
BackgroundRace and Ethnic Differences in College Achievement: Does High School Attended Matter?
Fletcher, J. M., & Tienda, M. (2010) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716209348749 · Cited by 97
Fantuzzo, J., LeBoeuf, W., Rouse, H., & Chen, C.-C. (2012) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2012.04.004 · Cited by 92
“…ScienceDirect Journal of School Psychology j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate / j schpsyc that African American children start school substantially behind their peers and fall nearly 0.10 standard deviations further behind each year from first to third grade (Fryer & Levitt, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialWho’s at Risk in School and What’s Race Got to Do With It?
O’Connor, C., Hill, L. D., & Robinson, S. R. (2009) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x08327991 · Cited by 88
“By the end of third grade, however, there is a large Black–White test score gap that cannot be explained by the covariates (Fryer & Levitt, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialBreaking the Cycle? Intergenerational Effects of an Antipoverty Program in Early Childhood
Barr, A., & Gibbs, C. R. (2022) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/720764 · Cited by 90
Learning More with Every Year: School Year Productivity and International Learning Divergence
Singh, A. (2019) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1093/jeea/jvz033 · Cited by 89
“Obama, Katrina, and the Persistence of Racial Inequality”
Margo, R. A. (2016) · The Journal of Economic History · doi:10.1017/s0022050716000590 · Cited by 81
“A racial gap in test scores now emerges very early in school, and it remains stubbornly present in later grades, even after controlling for a long list of family background and school variables (Fryer and Levitt 2004a, 2006).”
BackgroundNEET Youth in the Aftermath of the Crisis: Challenges and PoliciesPreprint
Carcillo, S., & Königs, S. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2573655 · Cited by 98
Husain, M., & Millimet, D. L. (2008) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.11.002 · Cited by 83
“Finally, while the magnitude of the gender gap in math is about one-half the size of the black-white math gap reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2005), the gender gap in reading is comparable to the black-white reading gap.”
BackgroundThe role of family socioeconomic resources in the black-white test score gap among young children
Magnuson, K. A., & Duncan, G. J. (2006) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2006.06.004 · Cited by 145
“Finally, both Fryer and Levitt (2005) and Yeung and PfeiVer (2005) took advantage of the longitudinal nature of their data to consider whether the same set of SES measures explain the somewhat larger achievement gaps found among older children.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUnderstanding Trends in the Black-White Achievement Gaps during the First Years of School
Murnane, R. J., Willett, J. B., Bub, K. L., & McCartney, K. (2006) · Brookings-Wharton papers on urban affairs · doi:10.1353/urb.2006.0024 · Cited by 80
Kim, J. S. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.505 · Cited by 79
Explaining discrepancies in arrest rates between Black and White male juveniles.
Fite, P. J., Wynn, P., & Pardini, D. A. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016626 · Cited by 78
“Our findings contribute to a growing literature suggesting that an increased exposure to risk factors accounts for racial discrepancies in several areas of functioning, including educational achievement (e.g., Fryer & Levitt, 2005).”
The Production of Human Capital in Developed Countries
Fryer, R. G. (2017) · Handbook of economic field experiments · doi:10.1016/bs.hefe.2016.08.006 · Cited by 85
“[102] Fryer, Roland, and Steven Levitt.”
Self-citationKindergarten Black–White Test Score Gaps
Quinn, D. M. (2015) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040715573027 · Cited by 89
Housing Costs, Zoning, and Access to High- Scoring Schools
Rothwell, J. (2012) · Cited by 75
School Segregation and Racial Gaps in Special Education Identification
Elder, T. E., Figlio, D., Imberman, S. A., & Persico, C. L. (2020) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/711421 · Cited by 72
Social Equity Theory and Racial-Ethnic Achievement Gaps
McKown, C. (2012) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12033 · Cited by 88
The relations between race, family characteristics, and where students apply to college
An, B. P. (2009) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.08.003 · Cited by 72
Fryer, R. G. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w22130 · Cited by 79
Self-citationThe dynamics of school attainment of England’s ethnic minorities
Wilson, D., BURGESS, S. M., & Briggs, A. (2009) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-009-0269-0 · Cited by 104
“In their extended study (Fryer and Levitt 2005), however, school quality is less important in explaining test score differentials.”
Is There a Nativity Gap? New Evidence on the Academic Performance of Immigrant Students
Schwartz, A. E., & Stiefel, L. (2006) · Education Finance and Policy · doi:10.1162/edfp.2006.1.1.17 · Cited by 67
“Moreover, in an extension using additional years of ECLS, Fryer and Levitt (2005) find that the black-white gap increases by 0.1 standard deviations each year between the beginning of kindergarten and the end of third grade.”
MethodInfluentialFrom Kindergarten Through Third Grade: Children's Beginning School Experiences
Rathbun, A. H., & West, J. (2005) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e609712011-003 · Cited by 65
Testing for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children
Fryer, R., & Levitt, S. (2006) · doi:10.3386/w12066 · Cited by 64
Self-citationThe Intersection of Health and Education to Address School Readiness of All Children
Peterson, J. W., Loeb, S., & Chamberlain, L. J. (2018) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2018-1126 · Cited by 69
Disparities in the prevalence of cognitive delay: how early do they appear?
Hillemeier, M. M., Farkas, G., Morgan, P. L., Martin, M. A., & Maczuga, S. (2009) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2008.01006.x · Cited by 58
Bowles, S., Loury, G. C., & Sethi, R. (2014) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1111/jeea.12037 · Cited by 59
“Di¤ering social networks may help explain why Fryer and Levitt (2006) found that while the white-black cognitive gap among children entering school is readily explained by a small number of family and socioeconomic covariates, over time black children fall further behind with a substantial gap…”
Hill, A., & Jones, D. B. (2017) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2017.09.008 · Cited by 56
Racial inequality in the 21st century: the declining significance of discrimination
Fryer, R. G. (2011) · Handbook of labour economics · doi:10.1016/s0169-7218(11)02408-7 · Cited by 60
Self-citationLanger-Osuna, J. M., & Nasir, N. S. (2016) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x16676468 · Cited by 63
“Clark and Clark (1959), for example, found that racial discrimination, undergirding the laws for segregated schools at the time, exacerbated Black students’ negative self-esteem, evidenced by a White racial preference bias among Black children.”
BackgroundInfluentialBeck, A. N., & Muschkin, C. G. (2012) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1525/sop.2012.55.4.637 · Cited by 52
Towards a framework for the validation of early childhood assessment systems
Goldstein, J. S., & Flake, J. K. (2015) · Educational Assessment Evaluation and Accountability · doi:10.1007/s11092-015-9231-8 · Cited by 50
The black–white test score gap and early home environment
Yeung, W. J., & Pfeiffer, K. M. (2008) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.11.004 · Cited by 50
“Recent findings by Fryer and Levitt (2004, 2006) suggest that the achievement gaps (1) are shaped by different sets of factors at varying developmental stages, and (2) early family environment may be central for understanding the roots of the black–white achievement gap.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKuhfeld, M. R., Condron, D. J., & Downey, D. B. (2020) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x20977854 · Cited by 51
A New Framework for Understanding Parental Involvement: Setting the Stage for Academic Success
Harris, A. L., & Robinson, K. M. (2016) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2016.2.5.09 · Cited by 49
Gigliotti, P., & Sorensen, L. C. (2018) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.004 · Cited by 49
Kirksey, J. J., Sattin-Bajaj, C., Gottfried, M. A., Freeman, J., & Ozuna, C. S. (2020) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858419899074 · Cited by 49
“Scholars have attributed the gaps in White and Latino/a students’ achievement in part to unequal educational opportunities (Galindo & Reardon, 2006; Gándara & Aldana, 2014), language proficiency (Fry, 2008; Kieffer, 2010), as well as family socioeconomic factors (Fryer & Levitt, 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Fryer, R. G.
- Affiliations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fryer, R. G.
- ORCID
- Fryer, R. G.
- Venue
- American Law and Economics Review
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2006-07-13
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 249-281
- ISSN
- 1465-7252 (ISSN-L)
- 1465-7260
- OpenAlex
- W2108478320
- Cited by
- 422
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 80.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Law and Economics Review (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- Black-White test score gap, racial achievement gap, early childhood education, first grade, third grade, reading achievement, mathematics achievement, academic trajectories, school quality, Black students, educational inequality
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