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Cited by 940School Choice and PerformanceCritical Race Theory in EducationEarly Childhood Education and Development

Understanding the Black-White Test Score Gap in the First Two Years of School

Fryer, Roland G., Levitt, Steven D.·2004·Review of Economics and Statistics
DOI 10.1162/003465304323031049
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Abstract

In previous research, a substantial gap in test scores between white and black students persists, even after controlling for a wide range of observable characteristics. Using a newly available data set (the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study), we demonstrate that in stark contrast to earlier studies, the black-white test score gap among incoming kindergartners disappears when we control for a small number of covariates. Real gains by black children in recent cohorts appear to play an important role in explaining the differences between our findings and earlier research. The availability of better covariates also contributes. Over the first two years of school, however, blacks lose substantial ground relative to other races. There is suggestive evidence that differences in school quality may be an important part of the explanation. None of the other hypotheses we test to explain why blacks are losing ground receive any empirical backing.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using ECLS-K data on children entering kindergarten in 1998, Fryer and Levitt find that the raw Black-White test-score gap in math and reading is essentially eliminated by a small set of observable controls, but Black students lose substantial ground relative to Whites over the first two years of school. The only explanation receiving empirical support is that Black students attend worse schools on average, though the authors characterize this evidence as suggestive rather than definitive.

Key findings

  • In fall kindergarten, the raw Black-White gap is .638 SD in math and .401 SD in reading; with the parsimonious controls (age, birth weight, SES, WIC, mother’s age at first birth, number of children’s books), the estimated gap becomes -.094 SD in math and .117 SD in reading, essentially eliminating the gap.
  • Between fall kindergarten and spring first grade, Black students lose ground relative to Whites: raw losses are .090 SD in math and .128 SD in reading; with controls, losses are .156 SD in math and .188 SD in reading.
  • When school fixed effects are included, the Black-White gap lost over time shrinks to less than one-third of the full-sample estimate and is not statistically different from zero: math difference -.047 (.052), reading difference -.05 (.057).
  • Other tested explanations receive little support: Black students do not suffer larger summer setbacks, teacher assessments mirror test-score patterns, having a Black teacher does not benefit Black students, and adding behavioral proxies does not alter findings.

Methods

  • Data: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998; the analysis sample with nonmissing test scores, race, or age is 13,290 for math and 12,601 for reading.
  • Outcomes: IRT math and reading test scores, normalized to mean zero and SD one, plus subjective teacher assessments; main specifications use weighted least squares with sample weights.
  • Design: Regressions of test scores on race dummies and a parsimonious set of controls, with extensions using an exhaustive set of roughly 100 covariates, school fixed effects, teacher fixed effects, and subsample/sensitivity analyses.

Limitations

  • The authors state that the school-quality explanation is “no more than suggestive”: observable school inputs explain only a small fraction of outcome variation, adding them increases R-squared by only .05, the Black-White gap continues to widen after including them, and Hispanics and Asians also attend worse schools but do not lose ground.
  • The authors note thorny sample-selection issues in within-school comparisons and cannot rule out that Whites attending schools with Blacks are on lower academic trajectories, despite initially scoring better than other Whites.
  • The paper cautions against causal interpretation of covariate coefficients, treats them as proxies for environmental and behavioral factors, and does not directly test explanations such as stereotype threat or “acting white”; the analysis covers only the first two years of school, so extrapolations to later grades are speculative.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1162/003465304323031049

Cites

27 of 27 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 35 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § ABSTRACT

    On a wide range of 'non-standard' school inputs (e.g., gang problems in school, percent of students on free lunch, amount of loitering in front of school by non-students, amount of litter around the school, whether or not students need hall passes, and PTA funding), Blacks do appear to be attending much worse schools after controlling for individual characteristics.

    “On a wide range of 'non-standard' school inputs (e.g., gang problems in school, percent of students on free lunch, amount of loitering in front of school by non-students, amount of litter around the school, whether or not students need hall passes, and PTA funding), Blacks do appear to be attending much worse schools after controlling for individual characteristics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    Hispanics show gains relative to Whites between the beginning of kindergarten and the end of first grade.

    “Hispanics show gains relative to Whites between the beginning of kindergarten and the end of first grade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § ABSTRACT

    As in previous data sets, we observe substantial racial differences in test scores in the raw data: Black kindergartners score on average .64 standard deviations worse than Whites.

    “As in previous data sets, we observe substantial racial differences in test scores in the raw data: Black kindergartners score on average .64 standard deviations worse than Whites.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Black children in the sample are growing up under circumstances likely to be less conducive to academic achievement than White children: lower socio-economic status, fewer children's books in the home, etc.

    “Black children in the sample are growing up under circumstances likely to be less conducive to academic achievement than White children: lower socio-economic status, fewer children's books in the home, etc.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?

    Even after the school input measures are added to the test-score regressions, the gap between Blacks and Whites continues to widen.

    “even after the school input measures are added to the test-score regressions, the gap between Blacks and Whites continues to widen.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 43
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 8

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Do Black children suffer worse summer setbacks when school is not in session?

    Blacks lose ground during the school year in both subjects in both years, in direct conflict with Entwisle and Alexander (1992).

    “We do observe Blacks losing ground during the school year in both subjects in both years, in direct conflict with Entwisle and”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Entwisle and Alexander (1992) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    On the subjective teacher assessments, the raw gap in general knowledge between Blacks and Whites is much smaller (.25 standard deviations) and does shrink almost to zero with the inclusion of controls.

    “On the subjective teacher assessments, the raw gap in general knowledge between Blacks and Whites is much smaller (.25 standard deviations) and does shrink almost to zero with the inclusion of controls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are the results simply an artifact of standardized testing?

    The replication in teacher assessments is true not only for Blacks, but also for Hispanics and Asians.

    “This is true not only for Blacks, but also for Hispanics and Asians.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    Including the fall kindergarten test score as a covariate predicting the spring first grade test score has little impact on the results: Black students lose .192 standard deviations in math and .140 standard deviations in reading.

    “Including the fall kindergarten test score as a covariate predicting the spring first grade test score also has little impact on the results: Black students lose .192 (.140) standard deviations in math (reading).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?

    On the measured school inputs, both Hispanics and Asians also experience worse schools than Whites, but neither of those groups is losing ground.

    “on the measured school inputs, both Hispanics and Asians also experience worse schools than Whites, but neither of those groups is losing ground.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mother's at the time of first birth all score better.

    “Older children, those with higher birth weights, those with older mother's at the time of first birth all score better.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?

    When students attending all-White schools are eliminated from the sample, the results are not greatly affected; Blacks continue to lose substantial ground by the end of first grade.

    “When we eliminate students attending all-White schools from the sample, but otherwise estimate identical specifications, the results are not greatly affected. Blacks continue to lose substantial ground by the end of first grade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?

    When school-fixed effects are included, the estimated ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample and is not statistically different from zero.

    “The estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: School-fixed effects control for all relevant differences in school quality between schools.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    The Black-White gap in math falls by more than forty percent; the reading gap is reduced by more than two-thirds when controlling for socioeconomic status.

    “The Black-White gap in math falls by more than forty percent; the reading gap is reduced by more than two-thirds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are the results simply an artifact of standardized testing?

    Controlling for other characteristics, the Black-White gap shrinks to .103 standard deviations on math and .066 standard deviations on reading.

    “Controlling for other characteristics, the Black-White gap shrinks to .103 standard deviations on math and .066 standard deviations on reading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Controlling for other factors, Black children actually score slightly better than Whites in reading, and only slightly worse in math.

    “In fact, the estimates suggest that, controlling for other factors, Black children actually score slightly better than Whites in reading, and only slightly worse in math.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Almost all of the controls enter in the predicted direction and with coefficients of plausible magnitude.

    “Almost all of the controls enter in the predicted direction and with coefficients of plausible magnitude.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given
    § III. The Data

    Hispanics are also worse off than Whites on average.

    “Hispanics are also worse off than Whites on average.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?

    Black children who have at least one Black teacher start out somewhat worse relative to their White peers on math and slightly better on reading, relative to Black students who have two Black teachers.

    “Black children who have at least one Black teacher start out somewhat worse relative to their White peers on math and slightly better on reading, relative to Black students who have two Black teachers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    There is some slight evidence that Black females do better relative to Whites than do Black males.

    “There is some slight evidence that Black females do better relative to Whites than do Black males.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § ABSTRACT

    This same set of covariates accounts for much but not all of the Hispanic-White difference in test scores, but cannot explain the high test-scores of Asians.

    “This same set of covariates accounts for much but not all of the Hispanic-White difference in test scores, but cannot explain the high test-scores of Asians.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Just accounting for socio-economic status at kindergarten entry, we estimate the Black-White gap in reading as -.134 compared to -.67 in Phillips et al. (1998).

    “For example, just accounting for socio-economic status at kindergarten entry, we estimate the Black-White gap in reading as -.134 compared to -.67 in Phillips et. al. (1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Phillips et al. (1998)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    Controlling for other factors in the regressions, Black students appear to lose much more ground than they do in the raw means: -.156 standard deviations on math and .188 standard deviations on reading.

    “Controlling for other factors in the regressions, Black students appear to lose much more ground than they do in the raw means: -.156 standard deviations on math and .188 standard deviations on reading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Using the coefficients in columns 2 and 7, a White student that had the characteristics of the average Black child would be expected to score .07 (.13) standard deviations above (below) that average Black child on math (reading) respectively.

    “Using the coefficients in columns 2 and 7, a White student that had the characteristics of the average Black child would be expected to score .07 (.13) standard deviations above (below) that average Black child on math (reading) respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    The patterns in teacher assessments mirror those in the test-score data: Black and Hispanic students start out substantially below Whites, and Black students lose ground over the first two years of school, whereas Hispanics maintain their position relative to Whites.

    “The patterns in the teacher assessments mirror those in the test-score data: Black and Hispanic students start out substantially below Whites, and Black students lose ground over the first two years of school, whereas Hispanics maintain their position relative to Whites.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Do Black children suffer worse summer setbacks when school is not in session?

    With controls, Black students lose slightly relative to whites over the summer on math (the gap rises from -.097 to -.134), but the null hypothesis of no change cannot be rejected.

    “With controls, Black students lose slightly relative to whites over the summer on math (the gap rises from -.097 to -.134), but the null hypothesis of no change cannot be rejected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Does the importance of parental/environmental inputs grow as children age?

    The residual gap increases more than the raw gap, contradicting the explanation that the importance of parental/environmental inputs grows as children age.

    “In fact, however, the residual gap increases more than the raw gap contradicting this explanation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § ABSTRACT

    Despite the fact that we see no difference in initial test scores for observationally equivalent Black and White children when they enter kindergarten, their paths diverge once they are in school.

    “Despite the fact that we see no difference in initial test scores for observationally equivalent Black and White children when they enter kindergarten, their paths diverge once they are in school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    Including the full set of nearly 100 covariates, Black students lose .136 standard deviations on math and .109 standard deviations on reading.

    “In those specifications, Black students lose .136 standard deviations on math and .109 standard deviations on reading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?

    The percentage of students eligible for free lunch, the degree of gang problems in school, the amount of loitering in front of the school by non-students, and the amount of litter around the schools are much higher for blacks.

    “the percentage of students eligible for free lunch, the degree of gang problems in school, the amount of loitering in front of the school by non-students, and the amount of litter around the schools are much higher for blacks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?

    Less than five percent of White students have a Black teacher by the end of first grade, compared to over fifty percent of Black students.

    “less than five percent of White students have a Black teacher by the end of first grade, compared to over fifty percent of Black students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?

    The results are generally similar across the three sets of analysis.

    “The results are generally similar across the three sets of analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    The most notable difference between the test scores and teacher assessments is that Asian students are rated at or below the level of White students in the fall of kindergarten on the teacher assessments, but then gain relative to Whites over time.

    “The most notable difference between the test scores and teacher assessments is that Asian students are rated at or below the level of White students in the fall of kindergarten on the teacher assessments, but then gain relative to Whites over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Including number of books reduces the Black-White gap on math to less than one-fourth of a standard deviation and completely eliminates the gap in reading.

    “Including number of books reduces the Black-White gap on math to less than one-fourth of a standard deviation and completely eliminates the gap in reading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools?

    In the full sample, Blacks are losing ground relative to Whites by .156 standard deviations in math and .188 standard deviations in reading.

    “Column 3 of the table shows the baseline results reflecting the fact that Blacks are losing ground in the full sample (-.156 standard deviations relative to Whites in math, -.188 standard deviations in reading).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § III. The Data

    Using the coefficients in columns 3 and 8, a Black child that had the characteristics of the average White child in the sample would be estimated to score -.21 standard deviations below that White child on math and be almost exactly even in reading.

    “Using the coefficients in columns 3 and 8, a Black child that had the characteristics of the average White child in the sample would be estimated to score -.21 standard deviations below that White child on math and be almost exactly even in reading.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    Asians lose roughly as much ground as Blacks on math and also fall slightly on reading.

    “Asians lose roughly as much ground as Blacks on math (although they start ahead of Whites) and also fall slightly on reading.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Do Black children suffer worse summer setbacks when school is not in session?

    On the raw scores, there is little difference before and after the summer break; to the extent there is any gap, it favors Black students.

    “On the raw scores, there is little difference before and after the summer break; to the extent there is any gap, it favors Black students.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    Black students attend schools with more people loitering around the school (coefficient .497, SE .079).

    “People Loitering Around School (0-3) | .524 (.747) | .497 (.079) | .331 (.064) | .171 (.063) | .368 (.088) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    When excluding students attending all-white schools, the estimated change in the Black-White math test score gap between fall kindergarten and spring first grade is -0.125 (SE .044).

    “Math | -.094 (.023) | -.250 (.028) | -.156 (.036) | -.136 (.028) | -.261 (.034) | -.125 (.044) | -.175 (.034) | -.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    Black students attend schools with more gang problems (coefficient .261, SE .058).

    “Gang Problems in School (1-3) | 1.409 (.585) | .261 (.058) | .338 (.044) | .128 (.044) | .336 (.069) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    The estimated change in the Black-White math test score gap between fall kindergarten and spring first grade is -0.156 (SE .036) in the full sample.

    “Math | -.094 (.023) | -.250 (.028) | -.156 (.036) | -.136 (.028) | -.261 (.034) | -.125 (.044) | -.175 (.034) | -.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    In the spring of first grade, the estimated Asian-White math test score gap, controlling for the parsimonious set of covariates, is 0.115 (SE .044).

    “Asian | .265 (.048) | .115 (.044) | .409 (.058) | .345 (.045) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    With school fixed effects, the estimated change in the Black-White math test score gap between fall kindergarten and spring first grade is -0.047 (SE .052).

    “Math | -.094 (.023) | -.250 (.028) | -.156 (.036) | -.136 (.028) | -.261 (.034) | -.125 (.044) | -.175 (.034) | -.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    Black students attend schools with a higher percentage of students receiving free lunch (coefficient 19.321, SE 2.604).

    “Percent of Students in School with Free Lunch | 29.829 (27.975) | 19.321 (2.604) | 8.173 (1.996) | 3.271 (2.076) | 6.815 (2.780) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data
    § VII. Conclusion

    Black students attend schools with more litter around the school (coefficient .492, SE .065).

    “Litter Around School (0-3) | .741 (.759) | .492 (.065) | .369 (.053) | .240 (.063) | .412 (.087) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?

    Black students perform almost as well as Whites in the fall of kindergarten on these tasks, but lag Whites by over two-tenths of a standard deviation by the spring of first grade.

    “Black students perform almost as well as Whites in the fall of kindergarten on these tasks, but lag Whites by over two-tenths of a standard deviation by the spring of first grade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § III. The Data

    These results are almost identical to the predictions from our baseline specification, because the coefficients from the White regression are quite similar to those from the full sample.

    “These results are almost identical to the predictions from our baseline specification, because the coefficients from the White regression are quite similar to those from the full sample.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § II. Background and Previous Literature

    The Black-White test score gap has generally been declining over time, although for high school students today, the gap is slightly larger than it was in the late 1980's.

    “That gap has generally been declining over time, although for high school students today, the gap is slightly larger than it was in the late 1980's (Grissmer et. al. 1998, Hedges and Nowell 1998, and Humphreys 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Grissmer et. al. 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hedges and Nowell 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Humphreys 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § ABSTRACT

    In previous research, a substantial gap in test scores between White and Black students persists, even after controlling for a wide range of observable characteristics.

    “In previous research, a substantial gap in test scores between White and Black students persists, even after controlling for a wide range of observable characteristics.”
    • Also stated in: § ABSTRACT · plain
      “Even after controlling for a wide range of covariates including family structure, socio-economic status, measures of school quality, and neighborhood characteristics, a substantial racial gap in test scores persists.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baughman and Dahlstrom (1968)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Phillips et al. (1998)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § II. Background and Previous Literature

    The gap in test scores between Blacks and Whites historically emerges before children enter kindergarten and tends to widen over time.

    “Finally, the gap in test scores between Blacks and Whites historically emerges before children enter kindergarten and tends to widen over time (Phillips et. al. 1998, Carneiro, Heckman, and Manoli 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Phillips et. al. 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Carneiro, Heckman, and Manoli 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § II. Background and Previous Literature

    Socio-economic status and the effects of poverty are important factors in explaining racial differences in educational achievement.

    “Socio-economic status and the effects of poverty are important factors in explaining racial differences in educational achievement (Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 1997, Mayer 1997, BrooksGunn et. al (1994, 1995, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mayer 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data
    § III. The Data

    Despite the fact that Phillips et al. (1998) have the greatest success in explaining the racial differences in reading achievement, the residual gap is almost as large as the raw gap in our data.

    “Indeed, despite the fact that Phillips et. al. (1998) have the greatest success in explaining the racial differences in reading achievement, the residual gap is almost as large as the raw gap in our data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Phillips et al. (1998)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Do Black children suffer worse summer setbacks when school is not in session?

    The test score gaps in the fall of kindergarten and spring of first grade for the subset tested in fall of first grade are similar to those for the sample as a whole, suggesting that the sub-sample is representative.

    “The test score gaps in the fall of kindergarten (column 1) and spring of first grade (column 4) for this subset of the sample are similar to those for the sample as a whole, suggesting that the sub-sample is representative.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § III. The Data

    This logic also holds for Hispanics, but not for Asians, who seem to be more responsive to environmental influences.

    “This logic also holds for Hispanics, but not for Asians, who seem to be more responsive to environmental influences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    Black students are losing ground relative to Whites, even more so relative to Hispanics, and somewhat less compared to Asians.

    “Thus, Black students are not only losing ground relative to Whites, but even more so relative to Hispanics, and somewhat less compared to Asians.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § III. The Data

    Hernstein and Murray (1994) reduce the gap by one-third, Neal and Johnson (1996) reduce the gap by sixty percent, and Phillips et al. (1998) reduce the black-white gap by two thirds.

    “For example, Hernstein and Murray (1994) reduce the gap by one-third, Neal and Johnson (1996) reduce the gap by sixty percent, and Phillips et. al., (1998) reduce the black-white gap by two thirds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hernstein and Murray (1994)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Neal and Johnson (1996) source
    • cites Phillips et al. (1998)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Does the importance of parental/environmental inputs grow as children age?

    The relative importance of non-school factors decreases over time, presumably because schools become a critical input into educational gains once children enter school.

    “That suggests that the relative importance of non-school factors decreases over time, presumably because schools become a critical input into educational gains once children enter school.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § V. The evolution of the racial test score gaps as children age

    If Black students in the sample continue to lose ground through ninth grade at the rate experienced in the first two years of school, they will lag White students on average by a full standard deviation in raw math and reading scores and over two-thirds of a standard deviation in math even after controlling for observable characteristics (substantially smaller for reading).

    “If Black students in the sample continue to lose ground through ninth grade at the rate experienced in the first two years of school, they will lag White students on average by a full standard deviation in raw math and reading scores and over twothirds of a standard deviation in math even after controlling for observable characteristics (substantially smaller for reading).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § II. Background and Previous Literature

    Even after controlling for socio-economic status in conventional regression analysis, a substantial gap still remains.

    “Even after controlling for socio-economic status in conventional regression analysis, a substantial gap still remains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brooks-Gunn and Duncan 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mayer 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § III. The Data

    It appears either that the Blacks we examine made real gains relative to Whites, or alternatively, non-random selection into earlier data sets led to exaggerated estimates of the racial gap in earlier studies.

    “Rather, it appears either that the Blacks we examine made real gains relative to Whites, or alternatively, non-random selection into earlier data sets led to exaggerated estimates of the racial gap in earlier studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Can teacher bias or differential socialization explain Black students losing ground?

    To the extent that skill in manipulating numbers is likely to be a more important input into understanding higher-order math than simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size, these results may foreshadow continued losses for Blacks relative to Whites in math as they age.

    “To the extent that skill in manipulating numbers is likely to be a more important input into understanding higher-order math than are simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size, these results may foreshadow continued losses for Blacks relative to Whites in math as they age.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Skill in manipulating numbers is a more important input into understanding higher-order math than simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black)

    The bottom panel of the table is teacher assessments, controlling for teacher-fixed effects.

    “The bottom panel is teacher assessments, controlling for teacher-fixed effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Data Appendix

    All regressions and summary statistics in the study are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and include dummies for missing data.

    “All of our regressions and summary statistics are weighted, unless otherwise noted, and we include dummies for missing data.”
    • Also stated in: § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black) · plain
      “The method of estimation is weighted least squares using sample weights provided by ECLS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black)

    The parsimonious set of controls is included in all regressions.

    “The top panel of the table reports results from regressions including the parsimonious set of controls.”
    • Also stated in: § Table 8: Do Black Students Suffer a Greater Summer Setback when School is Not in Session? Estimates of the Black-White test score gap for the subset of the sample tested in Fall of first grade (Values in the table are coefficients on the variable Black) · plain
      “The parsimonious set of controls is included in all regressions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
60 of 60

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.

    “The results presented in Tables 2 and 3 maintain the assumption that children of different races are equally responsive to changes in covariates.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The ECLS-K is a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998.

    “The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) is a nationally representative sample of over 20,000 children entering kindergarten in 1998.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The covariates in the sparse regressions are proxies for a broad set of environmental and behavioral factors.

    “We caution against a causal interpretation of the coefficients on the covariates, which we view as proxies for a broad set of environmental and behavioral factors.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The parsimonious set of covariates adequately captures a child's environment.

    “to the extent our control variables adequately capture a child's environment, the residual gap after including all the covariates would remain constant.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Skill in manipulating numbers is a more important input into understanding higher-order math than simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size.

    “To the extent that skill in manipulating numbers is likely to be a more important input into understanding higher-order math than are simple tasks such as counting or evaluating relative size”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Teacher assessments provide a valid measure of student achievement for testing whether test-score results are an artifact of standardized testing.

    “To assess this hypothesis, we examined the relative performance of children of different races on subject teacher evaluations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    School-fixed effects control for all relevant differences in school quality between schools.

    “With school-fixed effects, the estimated Black-White test score gap is identified off of the relative performance of Blacks and Whites attending the same school, as opposed to across schools.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Fryer and Levitt showed that differences in covariates explained roughly the same absolute black-white gap across specifications for Kindergarten, first, and third grade scores, but that the unexplained gap grew monotonically across these grades.

    “FL (see also Fryer and Levitt 2004), showed that differences in covariates explained roughly the same absolute black-white gap across specifications for Kindergarten, 1 st , and 3 rd grade scores, but that the unexplained gap grew monotonically across these grades.”

    From Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score Gap (2013) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004

    Section V reports that the covariate-adjusted Black–White gap grew from fall kindergarten to spring first grade, supporting that part of the claim. But the paper compares only those two time points; it does not report third-grade scores or establish that covariates explained roughly the same absolute gap across all three grades and specifications. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • By the end of first grade, Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.

    “Any optimism, however, is tempered by the fact that by the end of first grade (the last data used in Fryer and Levitt 2004) Black students have already lost substantial ground (the equivalent of almost three months of schooling) relative to Whites.”

    From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt 2004

    Section V reports that Black students lost ground relative to White students between the start of kindergarten and the end of first grade: 0.156 standard deviations in math and 0.188 in reading after controls. Our copy does not express that loss as the equivalent of almost three months of schooling, so the claim’s magnitude in months is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In Fryer and Levitt (2004), both Blacks and the Whites that attended schools with Blacks lost substantial amount on tests relative to Whites at other schools.

    “Both Blacks and the Whites that attended schools with Blacks lost substantial amount on tests relative to Whites at other schools.”

    From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)

    In “Are Black students losing ground because they attend worse schools” (page unavailable), the paper reports that Black students lost substantial ground relative to Whites in the full sample, while their relative loss was much smaller when compared with Whites at the same schools. This is consistent with weaker test-score trajectories at schools attended by Black students, but the paper does not establish that Whites at those schools themselves lost a substantial amount relative to Whites at other schools; it treats their possible lower trajectories as an unresolved explanation. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in specifications with school fixed effects.

    “As reported in Fryer and Levitt (2004), the estimates of ground lost by Blacks shrinks to less than one-third of the magnitude in the full sample when comparing fall kindergarten and spring first grade test scores, and is not statistically different from zero in these specifications.”

    From The Black-White Test Score Gap Through Third Grade (2006) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Fryer and Levitt (2004) find that a short list of covariates can fully explain the black-white gap in reading and (to a lesser extent) math scores among entering kindergarteners in the ECLS sample.

    “They find that these variables can fully explain the black-white gap in reading and (to a lesser extent) math scores among entering kindergarteners in the ECLS sample.”

    From Permanent Income and the Black-White Test Score Gap (2013) · cites this paper as Fryer and Levitt (2004)

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Asian students are both said to lose and not lose ground

    Major

    The discussion of school quality says Asians are not losing ground, but the earlier results say they lose roughly as much ground as Black students in math and also fall slightly in reading. This undermines the stated comparison between school inputs and test-score trajectories.

  • Teacher comparison names the wrong comparison group

    Minor

    The comparison is described as being against Black students who have two Black teachers. The stated comparison group instead consists of students for whom neither teacher is Black.

  • Math books-squared coefficient changes sign across tables

    Minor

    Table 5 prints the fall-kindergarten math coefficient on books squared as positive .020, whereas Table 4 reports the same baseline coefficient as negative -.020. The positive sign also conflicts with the stated decline in the marginal benefit of books.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. Armor G., 1992, Public Interest, 65
  2. 10.2307/1131822 · DOI
  3. Brooks-Gunn J., Child Development, 63, 736
  4. Goldberg A., 1995, Journal of Economic Literature, 33, 762
  5. Jencks C., 1998, American Prospect, 40, 44
  6. Krohn E., 1989, Journal of Psychology, 27, 59
  7. Naglieri J., 1986, Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 81

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D.
Affiliations
  • National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
  • American Bar Foundation (US)
ORCID
Fryer, Roland G.
Venue
Review of Economics and Statistics
Publisher
MIT Press - Journals
Published
2004-05
Volume
86
Issue
2
Pages
447-464
ISSN
  • 0034-6535 (ISSN-L)
  • 1530-9142
DOI
10.1162/003465304323031049
OpenAlex
W3021983229
Cited by
936
References
19
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 67 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 60 · 2012: 50
FWCI
152.19
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • The Review of Economics and Statistics (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
  • Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords
Black-White test score gap, early childhood education, kindergarten, school quality, racial achievement gap, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, covariate control, Black students

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-29.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-29.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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