Student or educator? Sign up with your school email and get 6 months of Pro free.
CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 6Reproductive Biology and FertilityReproductive biology and impacts on aquatic speciesEvolution and Genetic Dynamics

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 73 of the 73 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Domain Expansion and Functional Diversification in Vertebrate Reproductive Proteins

Open access
Rivera, Alberto M., Wilburn, Damien B., Swanson, Willie J.·2022·Molecular Biology and Evolution
DOI 10.1093/molbev/msac105PMC PMC9154058

Published version of a preprint

Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The rapid evolution of fertilization proteins has generated remarkable diversity in molecular structure and function. Glycoproteins of vertebrate egg coats contain multiple zona pellucida (ZP)-N domains (1–6 copies) that facilitate multiple reproductive functions, including species-specific sperm recognition. In this report, we integrate phylogenetics and machine learning to investigate how ZP-N domains diversify in structure and function. The most C-terminal ZP-N domain of each paralog is associated with another domain type (ZP-C), which together form a “ZP module.” All modular ZP-N domains are phylogenetically distinct from nonmodular or free ZP-N domains. Machine learning–based classification identifies eight residues that form a stabilizing network in modular ZP-N domains that is absent in free domains. Positive selection is identified in some free ZP-N domains. Our findings support that strong purifying selection has conserved an essential structural core in modular ZP-N domains, with the relaxation of this structural constraint allowing free N-terminal domains to functionally diversify.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/molbev/msac105

Cites

73 of 73 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Figures

Fig. 1. Phylogenetic analysis of ZP-N domain duplication history. (A) A structural alignment of mouse ZP2-N1 and ZP3-N highlights the broad structural conservation of these two classes of ZP-N domains (RMSD = ∼4.7 Å) despite only ∼18% amino acid sequence identity. The protein schematics summarize the ZP proteins included in this analysis. (B) Phylogenetic analysis (Kozlov et al. 2019) of ZP-N sequences (shown as a maximum likelihood tree) supports an ancestral separation between free and modular ZP-N domains (∼78% support). (C) A summary of ZP-N domain evolution based on the gene tree in (B). The ancestral protein contained a ZP module with a C-terminal ZP-N and ZP-C domains, and duplication of the ZP-N produced the most N-terminal domain found in ZP1, ZP4, ZP2, and ZPAX. Later duplication events within ZP2 and ZPAX gave rise to multiple additional ZP-N domains between ZP-N1 and the ZP module.
Fig. 1. Phylogenetic analysis of ZP-N domain duplication history. (A) A structural alignment of mouse ZP2-N1 and ZP3-N highlights the broad structural conservation of these two classes of ZP-N domains (RMSD = ∼4.7 Å) despite only ∼18% amino acid sequence identity. The protein schematics summarize the ZP proteins included in this analysis. (B) Phylogenetic analysis (Kozlov et al. 2019) of ZP-N sequences (shown as a maximum likelihood tree) supports an ancestral separation between free and modular ZP-N domains (∼78% support). (C) A summary of ZP-N domain evolution based on the gene tree in (B). The ancestral protein contained a ZP module with a C-terminal ZP-N and ZP-C domains, and duplication of the ZP-N produced the most N-terminal domain found in ZP1, ZP4, ZP2, and ZPAX. Later duplication events within ZP2 and ZPAX gave rise to multiple additional ZP-N domains between ZP-N1 and the ZP module.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2. Machine learning–based inference of sequence features that distinguish modular and free ZP-N domains. A logistic regression model with elastic net regularization was trained on the ZP-N multiple sequence alignment generated as part of the phylogenetic analysis, with the data partitioned for training and testing (75% and 25%, respectively), with five-way cross-validation of the training data employed to estimate the error distribution of the score function. We defined our optimal model as the most parsimonious model (i.e., the fewest parameters) within the estimated 95% confidence interval of the unregularized model. (A) The space of regularization hyperparameters was explored during model optimization, plotted as a 3D surface (left). The score is the negative mean-squared error, and the dots correspond to the 2D cross-section shown on the right, with the blue line denoting the intersection between the lower confidence limit of the unregularized model to its intersection with the score as a function of regularization strength. (B) Comparison of the unregularized and optimal logistic regression models as LOGO plots with the height of each amino acid at each position corresponding to its parameter weight, with colored amino acids denoting parameters retained in the regularized model (orange for modular; green for free). Each parameter weight approximating the logs odd ratio for a modular domain prediction, when a residue is present at that position. (C) Sequence LOGOs were constructed for individual clades within the phylogeny. They emphasize the conservation of residues within the modular ZP-N clade. There is also greater conservation of a characteristic ZP-N disulfide bond in the most N-terminal ZP-Ns compared with other free domains. (D) Mapping highly predictive sites onto ZP-N protein models suggest differences in structural properties between free and modular domains. The available crystal structure ZP3-N (3d4c) was used and modeled as a dimer for spatial context. Modular-associated sites are generally buried along the outer edge of the homodimer.
Fig. 2. Machine learning–based inference of sequence features that distinguish modular and free ZP-N domains. A logistic regression model with elastic net regularization was trained on the ZP-N multiple sequence alignment generated as part of the phylogenetic analysis, with the data partitioned for training and testing (75% and 25%, respectively), with five-way cross-validation of the training data employed to estimate the error distribution of the score function. We defined our optimal model as the most parsimonious model (i.e., the fewest parameters) within the estimated 95% confidence interval of the unregularized model. (A) The space of regularization hyperparameters was explored during model optimization, plotted as a 3D surface (left). The score is the negative mean-squared error, and the dots correspond to the 2D cross-section shown on the right, with the blue line denoting the intersection between the lower confidence limit of the unregularized model to its intersection with the score as a function of regularization strength. (B) Comparison of the unregularized and optimal logistic regression models as LOGO plots with the height of each amino acid at each position corresponding to its parameter weight, with colored amino acids denoting parameters retained in the regularized model (orange for modular; green for free). Each parameter weight approximating the logs odd ratio for a modular domain prediction, when a residue is present at that position. (C) Sequence LOGOs were constructed for individual clades within the phylogeny. They emphasize the conservation of residues within the modular ZP-N clade. There is also greater conservation of a characteristic ZP-N disulfide bond in the most N-terminal ZP-Ns compared with other free domains. (D) Mapping highly predictive sites onto ZP-N protein models suggest differences in structural properties between free and modular domains. The available crystal structure ZP3-N (3d4c) was used and modeled as a dimer for spatial context. Modular-associated sites are generally buried along the outer edge of the homodimer.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3. Amino acid diversity and tests of positive selection in modular and free ZP-N domains. (A) A heatmap showing the within-group and between-group mean phylogenetic distances for the orthologous groups of ZP-N domains (Kumar et al. 2018). (B) Positively selected sites in mammalian ZP2-N1 and ZP2-N2 were identified through maximum likelihood analysis and mapped onto protein models (4wrn for ZP2-N1 and an AlphaFold prediction for ZP2-N2) (Yang 2007).
Fig. 3. Amino acid diversity and tests of positive selection in modular and free ZP-N domains. (A) A heatmap showing the within-group and between-group mean phylogenetic distances for the orthologous groups of ZP-N domains (Kumar et al. 2018). (B) Positively selected sites in mammalian ZP2-N1 and ZP2-N2 were identified through maximum likelihood analysis and mapped onto protein models (4wrn for ZP2-N1 and an AlphaFold prediction for ZP2-N2) (Yang 2007).CC BY · PubMed Central

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Killingbeck, 2018, Current topics in developmental biology, 443
  2. Schrödinger, 2015, The PyMOL Molecular Graphics System, Version 1.8
  3. Wassarman, 2016, Current topics in developmental biology, 539
  4. Wong, 2005, Current topics in developmental biology, 1

Metadata

Authors
Rivera, A. M., Wilburn, D. B., & Swanson, W. J.
Affiliations
University of Washington (US)
Corresponding author
Rivera, Alberto M.
ORCID
Venue
Molecular Biology and Evolution
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2022-05-01
Volume
39
Issue
5
ISSN
  • 0737-4038 (ISSN-L)
  • 1537-1719
DOI
10.1093/molbev/msac105
PMC
PMC9154058
OpenAlex
W4280640654
Cited by
6
References
73
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2023: 1
FWCI
0.88
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Molecular Biology and Evolution (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R21HD105025, K99HD090201)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Reproductive Biology and Fertility
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Physiology › Reproductive biology and impacts on aquatic species
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Evolution and Genetic Dynamics
Keywords
zona pellucida, domain evolution, functional diversification, positive selection, purifying selection, vertebrate reproduction, protein structure evolution
MeSH terms
Zona Pellucida Glycoproteins, Amino Acid Sequence, Animals, Egg Proteins, Vertebrates, Zona Pellucida

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.