The Neo-Babylonian Empire

Together with Carchemish on the Euphrates, Riblah on the Orontes river, and perhaps Harran on the Balikh river, Tyre was thus one of the few urban centers upon which the Babylonians based their control of the region.

“Together with Carchemish on the Euphrates, Riblah on the Orontes river, and perhaps Harran on the Balikh river, Tyre was thus one of the few urban centers upon which the Babylonians based their control of the region.”

• cites Levavi 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Section 1.2 names Carchemish, Harran and Riblah as cities under permanent Babylonian control, but presents that list as part of a traditional model of limited domination. Section 4 reports a heavy, steady Babylonian presence in Tyre from around Nebuchadnezzar’s 30th year. The paper does not say that Tyre joined those cities as one of the few urban bases for controlling the region. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Clay tablets written in Babylonian document the daily life of the deported Judeans, not only in Babylon itself, but particularly also in the rural and relatively underdeveloped areas of Babylonia where they were settled.

“Clay tablets written in Babylonian document the daily life of the deported Judeans, not only in Babylon itself, but particularly also in the rural and relatively underdeveloped areas of Babylonia where they were settled.”

• cites Alstola 2020 sourceSupported

It is likely that the region's polities submitted formally to Babylonian dominion in the beginning of the sixth century.

“It is likely that the region's polities submitted formally to Babylonian dominion in the beginning of the sixth century.”

• cites Joannès 1991 sourcePartly supported

  In “Les rapports politiques avec la Cilicie” (p. 263), Joannès says Babylonian dominion over eastern Cilicia (Humé) was established under Nebuchadnezzar II, but Pirindu was held less securely. The paper does not say that the region’s polities formally submitted at the beginning of the sixth century. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the Khabur valley further east, the best evidence of Babylonian control from the late seventh century onward comes from the site of Tell Sheikh Hamad, the old Assyrian city of Dur-Katlimmu.

“In the Khabur valley further east, the best evidence of Babylonian control from the late seventh century onward comes from the site of Tell Sheikh Hamad, the old Assyrian city of Dur-Katlimmu.”

• cites Radner 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kreppner 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Levavi 2020 sourceSupported

The evidence of colony-building in the Khabur valley and perhaps in the region of Tyre shows that the model of superficial domination was not followed consistently everywhere and throughout the entire period of Neo-Babylonian domination.

“The evidence of “colony-building” in the Khabur valley and perhaps in the region of Tyre shows that this model was not followed consistently everywhere and throughout the entire period of Neo-Babylonian domination, 181”

• cites Levavi 2020 sourceSupported

The Babylonian apparatus of supervision and control was minimal and normally quite remote from the centers where tribute was extracted.

“This regime has been called “superficial domination” 180 -but only in the sense that the Babylonian apparatus of supervision and control was minimal and normally quite remote from the centers where tribute was extracted.”

• cites Levavi 2020: 62 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions describe an early tributary regime in which local kings retained their positions and Babylon invested little in the periphery until the middle of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign. But section 3.1 says control over the western periphery became increasingly tight in the second half of the period. The claim’s unqualified description of supervision as normally minimal and remote misses that change. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The crown undertook a project of 'internal colonization' in the underdeveloped regions of central Babylonia around Nippur.

“The life of deportees who were settled in the countryside, especially in the underdeveloped regions of central Babylonia around Nippur, where the crown undertook a project of”

• cites Alstola 2020: 102-163 sourceSupported

The military clans are much less well-attested due to the lack of large private archives associated with such families.

“The second and third category are well known, but the military clans are much less well-attested due to the lack of large private archives that are associated with such families.201”

• cites Still 2019: 82-85 sourceSupported

The life of deportees settled in the countryside, especially in central Babylonia around Nippur, must have been very different from the experience of others brought to cities on the Euphrates, especially Babylon.

“The life of deportees who were settled in the countryside, especially in the underdeveloped regions of central Babylonia around Nippur, where the crown undertook a project of”

• cites Alstola 2020: 102-163 sourceSupported
• cites Alstola 2020: 58-101 sourceSupported

Nabonidus claimed in one of his inscriptions to have given over three tons of silver and about 160 kilograms of gold to the three main temples of Babylonia, those of Babylon, Borsippa, and Cutha.

“Nabonidus claimed in one of his inscriptions to have given over three tons of silver and about 160 kilograms of gold to the three main temples of Babylonia, those of Babylon, Borsippa, and Cutha.”

• cites Schaudig 2001: 521: no.3.3a: ix 11′-30′Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Weiershäuser and Novotny 2020: no.3: ix 11′-30′ sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Roughly 126 million mudbricks were needed to construct the city wall of Babylon's Osthaken, the part of the temple tower's brick structure connected to Nebuchadnezzar, and the western Vorwerk of the South Palace.

“roughly 126 million mudbricks (figure 50.6) were needed to construct the city wall of Babylon's Osthaken (German for “eastern corner”), the part of the temple tower's brick structure that has been certainly connected to Nebuchadnezzar, 1 4 8 and the western Vorwerk (German for “barbican”) of the South Palace.”

• cites Jursa 2010a: 680Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Leaving aside Nabonidus's conquests in northern Arabia, the Neo-Babylonian Empire was therefore essentially of Nebuchadnezzar's making.

“Leaving aside Nabonidus's conquests in northern Arabia, the Neo-Babylonian Empire was therefore essentially of Nebuchadnezzar's making.”

The war that ensued from Nabopolassar's uprising lasted a decade.

“The war that ensued from Nabopolassar's uprising lasted a decade.”

• cites Glassner 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Archaeological information from other, peripheral parts of the empire is often hard to identify as specifically relevant for the brief period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's rule over the region.

“Archaeological information from other, peripheral parts of the empire is often hard to identify as specifically relevant for the brief period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's rule over the region.”

Around the mid-sixth century, the Babylonian crown promoted the establishment of rural enclaves in this area: temples in the Babylonian heartland received land grants on the Khabur on the condition that they invest in the development of these estates by sending men, animals, and other resources.

“Around the mid-sixth century, the Babylonian crown promoted the establishment of rural enclaves in this area: temples in the Babylonian heartland received land grants on the Khabur on the condition that they invest in the development of these estates by sending men, animals, and other resources.”

The Khabur area was a border region in which Babylonian claims clashed with those of the Medes (and later the Persians), who controlled the northern mountain regions.

“The Khabur area was a border region in which Babylonian claims clashed with those of the Medes (and later the Persians), who controlled the northern mountain regions.”

• cites Blattner 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Quantitatively, texts in Babylonian written in the cuneiform script outnumber by far all other types of sources for the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

“Quantitatively, texts in Babylonian written in the cuneiform script outnumber by far all other types of sources for the Neo-Babylonian Empire.”

These ensembles of text and royal image were literally intended to guard important communication routes, passes, and borders, just as apotropaic figures at the gateways of palaces might do.

“These ensembles of text and royal image were literally intended to guard important communication routes, passes, and borders, just as apotropaic figures at the gateways of palaces might do.”

• cites Da Riva 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Da Riva 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The numerous royal inscriptions might be expected to be a major source of information on political history as well as on royal ideology, but in actual fact their range of content is limited.

“The numerous royal inscriptions (figure 50.2) might be expected to be a major source of information on political history as well as on royal ideology, but in actual fact their range of content is limited.”

For the chronological framework and many events of the empire's political history, especially with regard to its westward expansion, we are dependent on a small number of so-called chronicles: texts listing political and military events year by (regnal) year.

“For the chronological framework and many events of the empire's political history, especially with regard to its westward expansion, we are dependent on a small number of so-called chronicles: texts listing political and military events year by (regnal) year.”

The region, and thus the empire as a whole, drew on three distinct institutional traditions.

“The region, and thus the empire as a whole, drew on three distinct institutional traditions.”

• cites Jursa 2014bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

They are less informative for the political history of the period, especially with regard to the imperial periphery in the west.

“They are less informative for the political history of the period, especially with regard to the imperial periphery in the west.”

Large-scale surveys in the Babylonian heartlands allow us to place the demographic and economic developments under the Neo-Babylonian kings into the longer continuum of Iron Age settlement history.

“Large-scale surveys in the Babylonian heartlands allow us to place the demographic and economic developments under the Neo-Babylonian kings into the longer continuum of Iron Age settlement history.”

• cites Adams 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Military events are rarely touched upon in the royal inscriptions.

“Military events are rarely touched upon in the royal inscriptions.”

Their aim was to establish royal legitimacy by focusing on the principal religious duty of the Neo-Babylonian kings, namely their obligation to act as guarantors of the cult of the main deities of Mesopotamia.

“Their aim was to establish royal legitimacy by focusing on the principal religious duty of the Neo-Babylonian kings, namely their obligation to act as guarantors of the cult of the main deities of Mesopotamia.”

• cites Da Riva 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This final bastion of the Assyrian empire was defeated by the Babylonians in 610 bc.

“This final bastion of the Assyrian empire was defeated by the Babylonians in 610 bc.”

• cites Glassner 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Gaining control of this vast area was the major political goal of the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus.

“Gaining control of this vast area was the major political goal of the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus.”

• cites Beaulieu 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In contrast, Nebuchadnezzar clearly did attempt to gain tight control over the prosperous and powerful Phoenician coastal cities in modern Lebanon.

“In contrast, Nebuchadnezzar clearly did attempt to gain tight control over the prosperous and powerful Phoenician coastal cities in modern Lebanon.”

The turning point did not come until the year 620 bc.

“The turning point did not come until the year 620 bc.”

• cites Glassner 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In his inscriptions, Nabonidus claimed to have had a dream in which he received divine orders to rebuild the moon god Sîn's temple in Harran from Marduk and from the moon god himself.

“The narrative in his inscriptions is quite elaborate: the king claimed to have had a dream in which he received divine orders to rebuild the moon god Sîn's temple in Harran specifically from Marduk, the traditional head of the Babylonian pantheon, and from the moon god himself.125”

• cites [125]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Amel-Marduk may have come to the throne despite the resistance of an influential group of dignitaries at court.

“Amel-Marduk may have come to the throne despite the resistance of an influential group of dignitaries at court.”

• cites [72]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Neriglissar, the fourth Neo-Babylonian king, toppled Amel-Marduk after a brief period of contentious rule.

“Neriglissar, the fourth Neo-Babylonian king (559-556 bc), toppled Amel-Marduk after a brief period of contentious rule.”

The bias of the available documentation toward a Babylonian urban milieu does not allow full appreciation of the role played by Chaldean and Aramaic tribes in Babylonia in the sixth century bc.

“It is certain that the bias of the available documentation toward a Babylonian urban milieu does not allow us to fully appreciate the role played by the Chaldean and Aramaic tribes in Babylonia in the sixth century bc”

The urban, tradition-bound, Babylon-centric focus of Neo-Babylonian ideology as expressed by cuneiform texts quite likely masks the plurality of influences that actually shaped the Neo-Babylonian polity.

“The “urban, ” tradition-bound, and specifically Babylon-centric focus of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's ideology as expressed by cuneiform texts quite likely masks the plurality of influences that actually shaped the Neo-Babylonian polity.”

The Babylonian court was not as efficient a means for binding the state's elites to the person of the king through offices, gifts, and physical proximity as it might have been.

“Therefore, the Babylonian court was not as efficient a means for binding the state's elites to the person of the king through offices, gifts, and physical proximity as it might have been.”

At least some (and possibly all) Neo-Babylonian kings had a tribal background.

“at least some (and possibly all) the kings had a tribal background.”

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In Babylonia, unlike Assyria, the highest-ranking palace officials were not at the same time in charge of important provinces.

“In Babylonia, the highest-ranking palace officials were not at the same time in charge of important provinces, in contrast to Assyrian practice.”

Only when the rebellious troops delivered Astyages to Cyrus did Cyrus have the opportunity to take and sack the Median capital, Ecbatana.

“It was only when the rebellious troops delivered Astyages to Cyrus that he had the opportunity to take and sack the Median capital, Ecbatana.127”

• cites [127]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Nabonidus sought to corroborate the unsolicited astrological omen by repeated controlled extispicy.

“The king, anxious to correctly interpret the god's wish, sought to corroborate the unsolicited astrological omen by repeated”

In Babylonia, local power was more decentralized and tended to lie with dignitaries of local, particularly tribal, origin rather than with officials directly beholden to the king.

“Local power was more decentralized.It tended to lie, not in the hand of officials directly beholden to the king, but with dignitaries of local, particularly tribal origin.”

The Nabonidus Chronicle says that Astyages had actually been overthrown during a revolt by his own troops.

“There it is said that Astyages had actually been overthrown during a revolt by his own troops.”

• cites [127]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The learned priests and scribes based in Ebabbar, the temple of the sun god in Sippar, presented Nabonidus with a very convincing Old Akkadian inscription intended to lend credence to certain claims made by the Ebabbar in the context of his building activities there.

“In a particularly spectacular case, the learned priests and scribes based in Ebabbar, the temple of the sun god in Sippar, presented Nabonidus with a very convincing Old Akkadian inscription intended to lend credence to certain claims made by the Ebabbar in the context of his building activities there.”

• cites [119]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Nebuchadnezzar and Amel-Marduk continued Nabopolassar's line.

“His son Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 bc) and his grandson Amel-Marduk (561-560 bc) continued his line.”

Lacking a position at court, provincial magnates did not necessarily spend much time in the capital in the king's presence.

“Lacking a position at court, these provincial magnates did not necessarily spend much time in the capital, in the king's presence.”

The political edifice put in place by Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar was unstable.

“The political edifice put in place by Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar was unstable.”

Although source material is preserved only for a short part of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's existence, all other available sources also imply instability.

“Although this source material is preserved only for a short part of the seventy-odd years of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's existence, all other available sources also imply instability.”

There are substantial differences in royal ideology between the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Assyrian image of the king in the Sargonid era.

“However, there are substantial differences in royal ideology in comparison to the Assyrian image of the king in the Sargonid era.”

For the occasion, Nabonidus's daughter was given the new Sumerian ceremonial name En-nigaldi-Nanna, interpretable as 'High priestess, (fulfillment of) the moon god's desire.'

“For the occasion, she was given a new ceremonial name in Sumerian: En-nigaldi-Nanna, which can be interpreted as meaning”

Nabonidus gave particular but not exclusive attention to the cult of the moon god.

“The king gave particular (but by no means exclusive) attention to the cult of the moon god.”

The tribes almost certainly formed the military backbone of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

“the tribes almost certainly formed its military backbone”

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The second tradition, closely linked to the first but still distinct, was that of the non-Babylonian Semitic tribal groups that had been settled in southern Mesopotamia since the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age: Chaldeans, Arameans, and to some extent also Arabs.

“The second tradition, closely linked to the first but still distinct, was that of the non-Babylonian Semitic tribal groups that had been settled in southern Mesopotamia since the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age: Chaldeans, Arameans, and to some extent also Arabs.”

• cites Beaulieu 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

From the Hofkalender list, with some additions based on other sources, an outline of the state administration under Nebuchadnezzar can be deduced.

“From this list (with some additions based on other sources) an outline of the state administration under Nebuchadnezzar can be deduced.”

• cites [65]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

News of Cyrus's rebellion against his Median overlord appears also in the Nabonidus Chronicle for Nabonidus's sixth year (550 bc).

“The momentous news about Cyrus's rebellion against his Median overlord, which would eventually lead to a change in the entire political landscape of the ancient world ( chapter 54 in this volume), appears also in the Nabonidus Chronicle, for the king's sixth year (550 bc).”

• cites [127]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A Neo-Babylonian king wanted to be seen not as conqueror, administrator, or provider of social justice but as religious leader and teacher of wisdom.

“A Neo-Babylonian king wanted to be seen “not as conqueror, administrator, or provider of social justice but as religious leader and teacher of wisdom.””

• cites [59]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Urban officeholders still commanded important resources owing to the economic and demographic potential of the cities and the high cultural prestige of the temples.

“However, they still commanded important resources owing to the economic and demographic potential of the cities and to the high cultural prestige of the temples in which they served.”

The most plausible hypothesis is that Nabonidus's father was an Aramean tribal leader who came to Babylonia in service to the Assyrian government but joined Nabopolassar's revolt.

“The most plausible hypothesis is therefore that Nabonidus's father was an Aramean tribal leader who came to Babylonia in service to the Assyrian government but joined Nabopolassar's revolt: a renegade, like the new king himself.”

• cites [77]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The last Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555-539 bc), aided by his son, toppled Neriglissar's son and successor Labaši-Marduk in 555 bc.

“The royal line changed again when the last Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus (555-539 bc), aided by his son, toppled Neriglissar's son and successor, the child Labaši-Marduk, in 555 bc.”

Conflicts were often played out at court.

“Conflicts were often played out at court.”

In his second year, Nabonidus directed his attention to the main sanctuary of the moon god in Babylonia, Ur.

“In his second year, he also directed his attention 1 2 6 to the main sanctuary of the moon god in Babylonia, Ur.”

According to the inscription, Nabonidus responded to a lunar eclipse, taking it as a sign from the moon god announcing his wish to have a high priestess.

“In doing so, Nabonidus was responding, according to the inscription, to a lunar eclipse, taking the celestial event as a sign sent to him by the moon god to announce his”

• cites [122]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

After the monarchy, the tribes and the cities with their institutions were the most important political factors in the Babylonian heartland.

“After the monarchy, the tribes and the cities with their institutions were the most important political factors in the Babylonian heartland.”

The king's principal account of his activities survives in an inscription of which a single copy was found in Ur.

“The king's principal account of his activities survives in an inscription of which a single copy was found in Ur.”

• cites [120]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The crown was never fully in control of the political dynamics of its relationship to the tribes, judging from changes in the royal house.

“Apparently, the crown was never fully in control of the political dynamics of its relationship to the tribes, judging from what we see through the lens of the changes in the royal house.”

Following the magnates, and thus holding a less prominent position, came officials governing the old Babylonian cities: royal commissioners, city governors, and chief priests.

“Following this group, and thus clearly holding a less prominent position within the overall hierarchy, came the officials governing the old Babylonian cities in the central floodplain: royal commissioners, city governors, and the chief priests.”

• cites [64]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Judging from the Hofkalender, officeholders in urban institutions were of lower overall rank than palace officials and tribal chiefs.

“Judging from the Hofkalender, where they were enumerated near the end of the list of the empire's dignitaries, officeholders in urban institutions were of lower overall rank than palace officials and tribal chiefs.”

Knowledge of the correct rituals, vestments, and paraphernalia of the entu priestess had been lost.

“The next difficulty was that knowledge of the correct rituals, vestments, and paraphernalia of the entu priestess had been lost.”

Tribal chiefs, as largely autonomous heads of strongly patrimonial communities, could levy forces more easily than the kings could call up urban militias through bureaucratic means.

“Tribal chiefs, as largely autonomous heads of strongly patrimonial communities, could levy forces more easily than the kings could call up urban militias through the bureaucratic means discussed above”

It was one of the principal religious duties of Babylonian kings to provide for the gods of Babylonia through temple-building programs and similar investments in infrastructure.

“It was one of the principal religious duties of Babylonian kings to provide for the gods of Babylonia through temple-building programs”

For most women, the norm was to transition from the father's household to that of their husband.

“For most women, the norm was to transition from the father's household to that of their husband.”

The post-Neo-Babylonian Verse Account makes a distinction, which is certainly correct, between the 'forces of Akkad (= Babylonia)' that followed Nabonidus to Arabia and the 'troops of the (other) lands' that remained in Babylonia under the command of the Crown Prince.

“We have seen that the post-Neo-Babylonian Verse Account makes a distinction, which is certainly correct, between the”

• cites [175]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The tax on temple estates amounted to between 2.15 and 8.3 percent of the temples' income.

“The tax amounted to between 2.15 and 8.3 percent of the temples' income.”

The investment of resources and manpower in these constructions was vast by any scale.

“The investment of resources and manpower in these constructions was vast by any scale.”

Taxation was the principal source of state revenue in Babylonia.

“Taxation was the principal source of state revenue in Babylonia.”

Landowners usually had interests in both the city and the countryside.

“Landowners, on the other hand, usually had interests in both the city and the countryside.”

The army was the foremost tool of resource extraction in the imperial periphery.

“the army was the foremost tool of resource extraction in the imperial periphery.”

The Babylonian part of the population can be broken down into three socioeconomic groups or strata: landowners who were priests; landowners who were not priests; and non-landowning Babylonians.

“The Babylonian part of the population can be broken down into three socioeconomic groups or strata: landowners who were priests; landowners who were not priests (while priests who did not own land were a negligible minority); and non-landowning Babylonians.”

The career of Neriglissar, tribal chief and general turned king, can be taken as confirmation of the military power of the tribes.

“The career of Neriglissar, tribal chief and general turned king, can be taken as confirmation of the military power of the tribes.”

The Chaldean and Aramean tribes had been the backbone of Babylonian resistance against Assyrian domination throughout the seventh century.

“the tribes had been the backbone of Babylonian resistance against Assyrian domination throughout the seventh century.”

Because of the difference in age between husband and wife (perhaps five years), many widows were subject to the authority of their eldest sons.

“Additionally, because of the difference in age between husband and wife (perhaps five years), 196 many widows were subject to the authority of their eldest sons.”

• cites Jursa 2010a: 37-39Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Nebuchadnezzar attempted to improve the country's defenses by having two massive, cross-country walls erected to the south and north of the capital.

“Likewise in the countryside, Nebuchadnezzar attempted to improve the country's defenses by having two massive, cross-country walls erected to the south and north of the capital.186”

• cites Da Riva 2010c; 2012bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Legally, society was stratified along traditional Mesopotamian lines.

“Legally, society was stratified along traditional Mesopotamian lines.195”

• cites Kleber 2011; Wunsch and Magdalene 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The king's rights and agency were constrained not so much by law, but by the force of custom and tradition.

“The king's rights and agency were constrained not so much by law, but by the force of custom and tradition.”

As a general pattern, the model of superficial domination predominated.

“but as a general pattern the model sketched here predominated.”

By no means was all labor compelled; many, sometimes most, laborers on these building sites were demonstrably free local men who were paid wages in silver.

“By no means was all labor compelled; many, sometimes most, laborers on these building sites were demonstrably free local men who were paid wages in silver.”

The evident transformation of Babylonia under the Neo-Babylonian Empire would not have been possible without a significant input of outside resources: the fruits of the empire collected from the imperial periphery.

“The evident transformation of Babylonia under the Neo-Babylonian Empire would not have been possible without a significant input of outside resources: the fruits of the empire collected from the imperial periphery.”

The Neo-Babylonian Empire, like every ancient Near Eastern empire that preceded and followed it, was at its base a tributary empire founded on the conquest and control of vast agrarian domains and on the surplus they produced.

“The Neo-Babylonian Empire, like every ancient Near Eastern empire that preceded and followed it, was at its base a tributary empire: it was essentially founded on the conquest and control of vast agrarian domains and on the surplus they produced.159”

• cites [159]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Royal inscriptions are the best direct textual evidence for the flow of the spoils of empire into Babylonia.

“Royal inscriptions, while far less detailed regarding the tribute expected from the imperial periphery than their Assyrian forerunners, are still the best direct textual evidence for the flow of the spoils of empire into Babylonia.”

The army that the Neo-Babylonian Empire financed with the resources it extracted was a composite body.

“The army that the Neo-Babylonian Empire financed with the resources it extracted was a composite body.”

A major part of the spoils taken from the west was put into local circulation.

“In this way a major part of the spoils taken from the west was put into local circulation.”

The most important type of land ownership on which taxation was based consisted of shares in fields called hanšû, literally 'fifty,' referring to the standardized narrow width of elongated field strips that faced the irrigation canals, in the hinterland of the cities.

“The most important type of land ownership, on which taxation was based, consisted of shares in fields (called hanšû, literally”

In Nebuchadnezzar's palace, there were large groups of foreign specialists, mostly from the west (e.g., Phoenicians and 'Ionians').

“In Nebuchadnezzar's palace, large groups of foreign specialists, mostly from the west (e.g., Phoenicians and”

Indirect sources are a better guide to the volume and impact of the material and human resources flowing into the imperial center as a result of Babylonia's expansion westward.

“Overall, indirect sources are a better guide to the volume and impact of the material and human resources flowing into the imperial center as a result of Babylonia's expansion westward.”

Ethnic divisions had important political as well as social implications for the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

“Ethnic divisions had important political as well as social implications for the Neo-Babylonian Empire.”

Once a network of vassal or client kingdoms and a rudimentary administrative structure based on a few central cities had been established, the expectation was that regular tribute would flow to the center without the necessity of sending troops every spring or summer to enforce compliance.

“Once a network of vassal or client kingdoms and a rudimentary administrative structure based on a few central cities-Carchemish and Riblah, and probably also Harran and Tyre-had been established, the expectation was that regular tribute would flow to the center without the necessity of sending troops every spring or summer to enforce compliance.”

Syria and the Levant experienced the first phase of Neo-Babylonian expansion as a sequence of violent incursions by the Babylonian army that pillaged conquered cities or extracted tribute from those that submitted.

“Syria and the Levant, by and large, experienced the first phase of Neo-Babylonian expansion as a sequence of violent incursions by the Babylonian army that pillaged the conquered cities or extracted tribute from those places and regions that were fast enough to submit to the Babylonian king.”

Only in exceptional circumstances could women head their own households, and thus be legally free.

“Only in exceptional circumstances could women head their own households, and thus be legally “free.””

Reprisals for non-compliance were anything but superficial.

“Reprisals for non-compliance were anything but “superficial.””

The sources mentioned so far depict Nabonidus as a king whose activities and biases were perhaps in some aspects unusual, but whose overall policies and activities fell within the 'normal' range of behavior for Babylonian kings.

“The sources mentioned so far depict Nabonidus as a king whose activities and biases were perhaps in some aspects unusual, but whose overall policies and activities fell within the”

The depredations in Judah and elsewhere in the west were intimately connected with the economic growth in Babylonia.

“The depredations in Judah and elsewhere in the west were intimately connected with the economic growth in Babylonia (section 50.6.2).”

The Chaldean and Aramean tribes were the third and most important source of men for the Babylonian army.

“The Chaldean and Aramean tribes were the third and most important source of men for the Babylonian army.179”

• cites Joannès 2000: 67Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Babylonian Empire was thereafter effectively surrounded by territory under the Persian king's control, stretching from southwestern Iran to northern Syria and far into Asia Minor.

“The Babylonian Empire was thereafter effectively surrounded by territory under the Persian king's control, which stretched from southwestern Iran to northern Syria and hence far into Asia Minor.”

Large groups of people were dependents, either of the crown or of one of the temples.

“Large groups of people were dependents, either of the crown or of one of the temples.”

Institutional estates were large, but frequently under-staffed and under-exploited by their forced or paid labor or by mostly-free tenants.

“Institutional estates were large, but frequently under-staffed and under-exploited by their forced or 217.Adams 1981.218.Jursa 2014c.219.van Driel 2002; Jursa 2010a: 171-205, 316-468. 1 5 8 paid labor or by mostly-free tenants.”

Priestly offices were defined principally by profession and period of service for a specific deity or temple.

“Priestly offices were defined principally by profession and period of service for a specific deity or temple.”

Social mobility was equally high for individuals and families who joined their fortunes to the state and its administration.

“This was equally true for those individuals and families who joined their fortunes to the state and its administration.”

Private landholding was the most innovative sector of Babylonian landholding in this period.

“Private landholding was the most innovative sector of Babylonian landholding in this period.”

In the temple sector, an extensive restructuring of the traditional household economy is apparent.

“In the well-known temple sector, an extensive restructuring of the traditional household economy is apparent.”

High-status women could be addressed as lord (bēlu), with a masculine appellative rather than the expected feminine equivalent mistress (bēltu).

“Status could break the constraints of gender barriers: high-status women could be addressed as “lord” (bēlu), with a masculine appellative rather than with the expected feminine equivalent “mistress” (bēltu).206”

• cites Hackl et al. 2014: no.71Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A significant part of urban society, and especially of the upper classes, was made up of clans: kin groups who claimed descent from a common, sometimes fictitious, ancestor.

“A significant part of urban society, and especially of the upper classes, was made up of clans: kin groups who claimed descent from a common, sometimes fictitious, ancestor who could be designated by name (“Nur-Sin”) or by profession or title (e.g., “Salt Merchant”).200”

• cites Nielsen 2011; Wunsch 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

At the center of an empire dominating the entire Near East, Babylonia soon began to reap the benefits of peace and imperial domination.

“At the center of an empire dominating the entire Near East, Babylonia soon began to reap the benefits of peace and imperial domination.”

Apart from a few regions that saw sustained investment and attempts at colony-building, the Neo-Babylonian kings maintained superficial control over the empire's periphery at best.

“Apart from a few regions that saw sustained investment and attempts at colony-building, the Neo-Babylonian kings maintained superficial control over the empire's periphery at best, basing their power on certain strategic cities and a network of client polities whose elites were cowed into cooperation by the regular appearance of the Babylonian army.”

The frequent changes to the ruling families should certainly be attributed in part to the Chaldean and Aramaic tribes, as well as to the military.

“The frequent changes to the ruling families should certainly be attributed in part to them, as well as to the military.”

Economically, temples were large complex households with their own workforces and their own means of production.

“Economically, temples were large complex households with their own workforces and their own means of production (in the city and the countryside).”

Profits and risks were considerable for individuals and families who joined their fortunes to the state and its administration.

“Also here profits (and also risks) were considerable.”

For large-scale operations, the crown tended to favor its own clients.

“For large-scale operations, the crown tended to favor its own clients.220”

• cites Jursa 2010a: 193-206; also Wunsch 2010; Janković 2013; Kozuh 2014: 153-214Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In economic terms, the priestly sector of urban society was the least dynamic that we know of.

“In economic terms, this sector of urban society was the least dynamic that we know of-but maintaining the status quo was of course a core value of priestly society.”

The rapid rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire was owed to the fact that it could fill the void left by the fall of Assyria at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes, without necessarily taking over the Assyrian institutions that had survived in the west.

“The rapid rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire was owed to the fact that it could fill the void left by the fall of Assyria at the hands of the Babylonians and Medes, without necessarily taking over the Assyrian institutions that had survived in the west.”

The pervasive necessity to preserve ritual fitness (purity) and to affirm and defend status determined all social choices made by the priestly clans, as well as their economic outlook.

“The pervasive necessity to preserve ritual fitness (“purity”) and to affirm and defend status determined all social choices made by the priestly clans, as well as their economic outlook.”

Priests were specialized personnel who were almost exclusively men.

“Priests were specialized personnel who were almost exclusively men.”

Priestly clans practiced group-specific endogamy: priests married the daughters of priests.

“Not surprisingly, priestly clans practiced group-specific endogamy: priests married the daughters of priests.”

The process by which the crown brought temple institutions under its ever-tightening control involved the placement of royal protégés as managers of large sectors of their economic affairs.

“Finally, the process by which the crown brought temple institutions under its ever-tightening control involved the placement of royal protégés as managers of large sectors of their economic affairs.”

In the sixth century bc, the social values of the priestly clans were still shared, albeit probably to a lesser degree, by the other sectors of the urban upper classes.

“In the sixth century bc, the social values of the priestly clans were still shared (albeit probably to a lesser degree) by the other sectors of the urban upper classes, the military and the artisanal/ commercial clans.204”

On a few occasions, entrepreneurial non-priests managed to marry into established priestly houses, invariably because of the latter's financial difficulties.

“On a few occasions, entrepreneurial non-priests managed to marry into established priestly houses-invariably because of the latter's financial difficulties.208”

• cites Jursa 2005: 108-109Not checked — no full text of the source

The Neo-Babylonian kings' extensive building projects brought huge quantities of silver-uncoined silver money-into circulation.

“The Neo-Babylonian kings' extensive building projects brought huge quantities of silver-uncoined silver money-into circulation.”

The birth of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its early development is a result of the vicissitudes of Assyrian rule over Babylonia and the fate of the Assyrian Empire in general.

“The birth of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its early development is a result of the vicissitudes of Assyrian rule over Babylonia and the fate of the Assyrian Empire in general.”

The process that led to the eventual disappearance of the Babylonian language and Babylonian culture toward the end of the first millennium began here.

“The process that led to the eventual disappearance of the Babylonian language and Babylonian culture toward the end of the first millennium began here.”

Širku could move freely in society only with their temple's permission, as their socioeconomic and legal choices could be narrowly constrained by the wishes of the temple.

“Potentially, they could move freely in society, but only with their temple's permission as, at all times, their socioeconomic and legal choices could be narrowly constrained by the wishes of the temple.”

The basic dynamics of agrarian development manifested themselves in different forms for the three types of landholding characteristic of the period: royal and temple estates; land held by individuals; and estates granted to collectives by the state in return for military service and taxes.

“The basic dynamics of agrarian development manifested themselves in different forms for the three types of landholding that are characteristic of the period: royal and temple (i.e., institutional) estates; land held by individuals, often city-based; and estates granted to collectives by the state in return for military service and taxes.219”

• cites van Driel 2002; Jursa 2010a: 171-205, 316-468Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is far more evidence for interaction with non-Babylonian elements of the population for this segment of Babylonian society.

“Most importantly, there is far more evidence for interaction with non-Babylonian elements of the population for this segment of Babylonian society.”

As a consequence, many urban unskilled laborers could subsist largely on monetary wages because they could find employment for much of the year.

“As a consequence, many urban unskilled laborers could subsist largely on monetary wages because they could find employment for much of the year.”

As a consequence of the huge influx of silver into the economy, exchange became more strongly monetized.

“As a consequence of the huge influx of silver into the economy, exchange became more strongly monetized.”

Politically, Nabopolassar's success ended an extended period of unrest and war.

“Politically, Nabopolassar's success ended an extended period of unrest and war.”

Only two factors regularly softened, or even subverted, socially prescribed distinctions of status: age and economic prosperity.

“Only two factors regularly softened, or even subverted, socially prescribed distinctions of status: age and economic prosperity, and it is in these subversions that the principle is most apparent outside the priestly clans.”

The urban populations in the most dynamic parts of Babylonia-the cities along the southern Euphrates from Sippar to Uruk-probably profited most from the new imperial economic regime.

“The urban populations in the most dynamic parts of the countrythe cities along the southern course of the Euphrates, from Sippar in the north across to Babylon and Borsippa to Dilbat and on to Marad and Uruk-probably profited the most from this new”

Property-owning Babylonians belonging to a clan with a surname produced the bulk of the written documentation that has survived from private contexts.

“Property-owning Babylonians belonging to a clan with a surname produced the bulk of the written documentation that has survived from private contexts.”

The crown shaped the institutional, administrative, and technical foundations of Neo-Babylonian agriculture.

“The crown shaped the institutional, administrative, and technical foundations of Neo-Babylonian agriculture.”

The Neo-Babylonian kings based their power on certain strategic cities and a network of client polities whose elites were cowed into cooperation by the regular appearance of the Babylonian army.

“Apart from a few regions that saw sustained investment and attempts at colony-building, the Neo-Babylonian kings maintained superficial control over the empire's periphery at best, basing their power on certain strategic cities and a network of client polities whose elites were cowed into cooperation by the regular appearance of the Babylonian army.”

Increased complexity in craft production was mirrored by increased consumption.

“This increased complexity in craft production was mirrored by increased consumption.”

This led to a deeper integration of individual temple economies into the state apparatus as a whole.

“This led to a deeper integration of individual temple economies into the state apparatus as a whole.”

Canal-building and land-reclamation schemes extended the cultivated area.

“Canal-building and land-reclamation schemes extended the cultivated area.”

The Neo-Babylonian Empire underwent a consolidation phase.

“The empire then underwent a consolidation phase.”

The urban propertied commercial and artisanal clans made the most of the opportunities that opened up, engaging in trade, agrarian management, and other entrepreneurial activities.

“Manual workers found profitable work on construction sites, and the urban propertied commercial and artisanal clans made the most of the opportunities that opened up, engaging in trade, agrarian management, and other entrepreneurial activities.”

By the sixth century, close to half of the population lived in cities of more than ten hectares.

“Nascent demographic expansion coincided with a phase of increasing urbanization: by the sixth century, close to half of the population lived in cities of more than ten hectares.217”

• cites Adams 1981Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Identifying traces of non-Babylonian social and legal traditions in the written documentation dealing with deportees to Babylonia is difficult.

“Indeed, identifying traces of non-Babylonian social and legal traditions in the written documentation dealing with deportees to Babylonia is difficult.215”

• cites Abraham 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Three broad categories can be distinguished among urban upper-class groups: military clans, priestly clans, and artisanal or commercial clans.

“three broad categories can be distinguished among these urban, upper-class groups: military clans (e.g., the Scout clan), priestly clans (e.g., the Gatekeeper clan), and artisanal or commercial clans (e.g., the Smith clan).”

The overriding concern of most priests was to maintain and manage their family property portfolios: fields and date orchards, houses, and priestly offices.

“Their overriding concern was to maintain and manage their family property portfolios: fields and (more frequently) date orchards, houses, and priestly offices.”

During the Neo-Babylonian period, the social rights of temples increasingly fell under the control of the crown.

“socially, these rights were traditionally in the hands of oligarchic priestly elites, but during the Neo-Babylonian period they increasingly fell under the control of the crown (section 50.4).197”

There is clear evidence for the assimilation of West Semites who arrived in Babylonia during the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

“On the other hand, there is clear evidence for the “assimilation” of West Semites who arrived in Babylonia during the Neo-Babylonian Empire.”

This silver had been extracted from the imperial periphery in the form of tribute and booty.

“This silver had been extracted from the imperial periphery in the form of tribute and booty.”

The Neo-Babylonian Empire played a role in bringing about the 'Babylonian Exile,' a monumental watershed in the history of Judaism.

“The Neo-Babylonian Empire merits close historical attention not only for its brief role in the”

After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, its prosperity was harvested by the new Persian rulers.

“After the fall of the empire, this prosperity was harvested by the new Persian rulers, and Babylonia began a new transformation.”

It is not evident that structural weakness or systemic internal strife had brought about, or hastened, the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

“Still, while the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and of Babylonian independence, came quickly with the defeat of its still partly enigmatic final king Nabonidus at the hands of the Persians, it is not evident that structural weakness or systemic internal strife had brought about, or hastened, the collapse of the empire.”

Babylonia experienced a phase of unprecedented prosperity.

“The material benefits of 1 6 2 empire were substantial: cities were changed probably beyond recognition by royally sponsored building programs, and the economy expanded both quantitatively and qualitatively, allowing Babylonia to experience a phase of unprecedented prosperity-a prosperity that the periphery suffered to maintain, of course.”

The Neo-Babylonian Empire's core experienced intensive scribal, scholarly, and literary production.

“The Neo-Babylonian Empire's core experienced a distinct flowering of Babylonian culture, and intensive scribal, scholarly, and literary production.”

The Neo-Babylonian Empire's core experienced a distinct flowering of Babylonian culture.

“The Neo-Babylonian Empire's core experienced a distinct flowering of Babylonian culture, and intensive scribal, scholarly, and literary production.”

Cities were changed probably beyond recognition by royally sponsored building programs.

“The material benefits of 1 6 2 empire were substantial: cities were changed probably beyond recognition by royally sponsored building programs, and the economy expanded both quantitatively and qualitatively, allowing Babylonia to experience a phase of unprecedented prosperity-a prosperity that the periphery suffered to maintain, of course.”

The material benefits of the Neo-Babylonian Empire were substantial.

“The material benefits of 1 6 2 empire were substantial: cities were changed probably beyond recognition by royally sponsored building programs, and the economy expanded both quantitatively and qualitatively, allowing Babylonia to experience a phase of unprecedented prosperity-a prosperity that the periphery suffered to maintain, of course.”