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Social Norms and Social Roles
Open accessAbstract
Economists have invented a game: the ultimatum game. The people who run the game give some money, on a provisional basis, to two players. The first player is instructed to offer some part of the money to the second player. If the second player accepts that amount, he can keep what is offered, and the first player gets to keep the rest. But if the second player rejects the offer, neither player gets anything. No bargaining is allowed. Both players are informed that these are the rules. Using standard assumptions about rationality, self-interest, and choice, economists predict that the first player should offer a penny and the second player should accept.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Sunstein argues that behavior is pervasively shaped by social norms, social roles, and social meanings, so the standard notion of “preferences” is ambiguous and often misleading for law and social science. He defends government “norm management” as an inevitable and potentially valuable tool for improving well-being and autonomy, subject to rights-based limits.
Key findings
- In ultimatum games, standard self-interest predicts a penny offer accepted, but offers usually average 30–40% of the total, offers below 20% are often rejected, and 50–50 splits are common; these results cut across stakes and cultures. In Cialdini’s littering experiment, almost none in the treatment group threw flyers on the street after seeing someone pick up trash, versus over 1/3 in the control group.
- Smoking causes about 400,000 U.S. deaths yearly and about one million Americans begin smoking yearly; in 1993, 22.9% of white teenagers smoked versus only about 4.4% of African-American teenagers, a figure four times lower than a decade before. Among African-Americans aged 18–24, smoking fell from 37.1% (1965) to 10.3% (1992), while white rates fell from 38.4% (1965) to 27.8% (1987) and then stayed roughly constant. The preventable-risk table lists tobacco at 19%/~400,000 deaths per year, diet/activity at 14%/~300,000, and alcohol at 5%/~100,000.
- Willingness-to-accept/willingness-to-pay disparities are large: people demanded about five times as much to allow destruction of park trees as they would pay to prevent it; hunters would pay $247 to prevent loss of a license but demand $1,044 to accept it; a houseplant study found mean WTP $7.81 versus mean WTA $18.43. WTA usually doubles WTP, environmental goods show factors of two to over ten, and some tree experiments average around 75/1; Sunstein attributes part of this to shame and social norms.
- Norms operate as taxes or subsidies on choice; norm entrepreneurs can trigger norm bandwagons and cascades; law has an expressive function and can change norms, meanings, and roles. The article argues that individual agents have little control over norms and face collective action problems, so collective/legal action may be needed, though rights should constrain norm management.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical legal article, not an original empirical study. It synthesizes experimental economics, social psychology, and legal examples, including secondary data and published experiments.
- Uses five opening “tales” (ultimatum game, littering, smoking/race, Hamptons recycling, John Jones) to illustrate anomalies and the role of norms, roles, meanings, shame, and pride.
- Analytical framework distinguishes social norms, social roles, and social meanings; critiques “preferences” as ambiguous between choices and underlying mental states; proposes intrinsic value, reputational effects, and self-conception as more concrete categories; discusses government tools from information and persuasion to incentives and coercion.
Limitations
- Stated: empirical questions remain about whether and under what conditions law actually affects social norms and meanings; much work remains. The paper also warns that reference to norms can become a conclusory explanation and that norm management may be futile or counterproductive (e.g., “just say no”).
- Stated: the WTP/WTA explanation is offered as one possibility among many, not exhaustive; the African-American teenage smoking decline is described as a public health success story that government officials cannot fully explain.
- Evident from the text: the article relies on illustrative examples and secondary literature rather than systematic original testing, and its normative proposals are programmatic; it does not provide a full account of rights limits or an empirical test of law’s norm-changing effects.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
0 of 62 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation§ A. Preferences As Choices
Empirical work has encountered an effect called extremeness aversion, in which people make choices that avoid the extremes.
“Empirical work has encountered an effect called”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [116]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ F. Beliefs About Facts
When people are asked to judge risks in terms of their seriousness, they respond not simply in terms of aggregate expected death rates but also with reference to moral judgments, connected with prevailing social norms, about the voluntariness of the risk, its distribution, its dreadedness, its potentially catastrophic character, and so forth.
“When people are asked to judge risks in terms of their seriousness, they respond not simply in terms of aggregate expected death rates but also with reference to moral judgments, connected with prevailing social norms, about the voluntariness of the risk, its distribution, its dreadedness, its potentially catastrophic character, and so forth.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [108]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ 4. Preferences.
When hunters were questioned about the potential loss of their hunting licenses, they said that they would be willing to pay an average of $247 to prevent the loss-but would demand no less than $1044 to accept it.
“When hunters were questioned about the potential loss of their hunting licenses, they said that they would be willing to pay an average of $247 to prevent the loss-but would demand no less than $1044 to accept it.4 4”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [144]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ 4. Preferences.
One study found that people would demand about five times as much to allow destruction of trees in a park as they would pay to prevent the destruction of those same trees.
“One study found that people would demand about five times as much to allow destruction of trees in a park as they would pay to prevent the destruction of those same trees.1 43”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [143]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ 4. Preferences.
Environmental goods tend to reflect a disparity of factors from two to over ten.
“Environmental goods tend to reflect a disparity of factors from two to over ten.147”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [147]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ 4. Preferences.
In some environmental experiments involving trees, the WTA/WTP ratio is extraordinarily high, averaging around 75/1.
“In some environmental experiments involving trees, the WTA/WTP ratio is extraordinarily high, averaging around 75/1.148”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [148]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ B. Tools
Among African-Americans between 18 and 24, the smoking rate fell from 37.1% in 1965, to 31.8% in 1979, to 20.4% in 1987, to 10.3% in 1992.
“Among African-Americans between 18 and 24, the smoking rate has fallen from 37.1% in 1965, to 31.8% in 1979, to 20.4% in 1987, to 10.3% in 1992.180”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [180]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation§ B. Tools
Energy conservation programs are far more effective if they point to the dollars lost through failure to conserve than if they point to the dollars saved through conservation.
“Similarly, energy conservation programs are far more effective if they point to the dollars lost through failure to conserve than if they point to the dollars saved through conservation.177”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [177]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ B. Littering
In Cialdini's field experiment, almost none of the people who saw a person pick up litter and noticed the flyers threw them on the street.
“Of the group who both saw the responsible behavior and noticed the flyers, almost none threw them on the street.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cialdini et al., 24 Advances Experimental Soc.Psychol.201 (1991)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ A. Ultimatums and Fairness 1
In ultimatum game experiments, offers of less than 20% are often rejected.
“Offers of less than 20% are often rejected.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Roth, Bargaining Experiments
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Camerer & Thaler, Ultimatums, Dictators and Manners
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ B. Littering
The difference between the teenage and adult reductions in African-American smoking suggests a substantial effect from social norms among teenagers.
“a difference that suggests a substantial effect from social norms among teenagers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Almost all of the risks of death from preventable risks could be much reduced with different norms.
“almost all of these risks of death could be much reduced with different norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ A. Ultimatums and Fairness 1
In ultimatum game experiments, offers usually average between 30% and 40% of the total.
“Offers usually average between 30% and 40% of the total.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Roth, Bargaining Experiments
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Camerer & Thaler, Ultimatums, Dictators and Manners
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ 1996]
Part of the difference in African-American teenage smoking may lie in a private antismoking campaign in the African-American community.
“And part of that difference may lie in a private antismoking campaign in the African-American community”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ingrassia & Springen, Waiting to Exhale
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ 1996]
Existing social norms encourage much risk-taking behavior.
“Existing social norms encourage much risk-taking behavior”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ B. Littering
In Cialdini's control experiment, over one third of drivers threw the flyers on the street.
“In the control experiment, with no one showing responsible behavior, over 1/3 of the drivers threw the flyers on the street.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cialdini et al., 24 Advances Experimental Soc.Psychol.201 (1991)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Norm entrepreneurs can exploit the fragility of social conditions.
“What I will call norm entrepreneurs-people interested in changing social norms-can exploit this fact.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Sometimes people do not behave as economists predict.
“Sometimes people do not behave as economists predict.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted Domain
Agents who seek to make changes in norms face a collective action problem.
“agents who seek to make changes in norms face a collective action problem.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted Domain
If single parenthood is stigmatized, social practices will change accordingly.
“If single parenthood is stigmatized, social practices will change accordingly”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ 1996]
The costs and benefits of action, from the standpoint of individual agents, include the consequences of acting inconsistently with social norms.
“The costs and benefits of action, from the standpoint of individual agents, include the consequences of acting inconsistently with social norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ 1996]
Existing social conditions are often more fragile than might be supposed, because they depend on social norms to which people may not have much allegiance.
“Existing social conditions are often more fragile than might be supposed, because they depend on social norms to which-and this is the key point-people may not have much allegiance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: People may not have much allegiance to social norms.
- Interpretationnone given§ A. Social Norms
Much socially desirable behavior is attributable to social norms.
“Much socially desirable behavior is attributable to social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.
If littering produces shame or disapproval, behavior will shift.
“If littering produces shame or disapproval, behavior will shift”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ A. Social Norms
The persistent urge to conform to social norms has been demonstrated in a good deal of work in social psychology.
“The persistent urge to conform to social norms has been demonstrated in a good deal of work in social psychology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Asch, Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.
If race discrimination produces reputational cost rather than benefit, fewer people will discriminate on the basis of race.
“if race discrimination produces reputational cost rather than benefit, fewer people will discriminate on the basis of race”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ A. Social Norms
Social norms are enforced through social sanctions that are pervasive.
“social norms are enforced through social sanctions that are, to say the least, pervasive.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
What is rational for an agent is a function of, and mediated by, social roles and associated norms.
“What is rational for an agent is a function of, and mediated by, social roles and associated norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted Domain
The relevant norms greatly influence behavior.
“This is so even though the relevant norms greatly influence behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Successful norm entrepreneurs produce norm bandwagons and norm cascades.
“If successful, they produce what I will call norm bandwagons and norm cascades.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted Domain
In all these cases, individual actors need to act together in order to produce the relevant shifts.
“In all of these cases, individual actors need to act together in order to produce the relevant shifts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Individual rationality is a function of social norms.
“Individual rationality is a function of social norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Norms and roles, operating as taxes on or subsidies to action, can create a division between the judgments and desires that are displayed publicly and the judgments and desires that would be displayed without current norms and roles.
“norms and roles-operating as taxes on or subsidies to action-can create a division between the judgments and desires that are displayed publicly and the judgments and desires that would be displayed without current norms and roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ 1996]
Many important and well-known anomalies in human behavior are best explained by reference to social norms and to the fact that people feel shame when they violate those norms.
“Many important and well-known anomalies in human behavior are best explained by reference to social norms and to the fact that people feel shame when they violate those norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.
Changes in social norms can influence choices if intrinsic value is held constant, by altering the effects of reputational incentives and consequences for self-conception.
“Changes in social norms can influence choices if intrinsic value is held constant, by altering the effects of reputational incentives and consequences for self-conception.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Roles and freedom.
Social roles are facilitating as well as constraining.
“Like social norms, social roles are facilitating as well as constraining.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
The role of citizen is accompanied by norms that can discourage selfishness and encourage attention to the public good.
“Largely for this reason, the role of citizen is accompanied by norms that can discourage selfishness and encourage attention to the public good.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.
Social norms are facilitative as well as constraining.
“Social norms are thus facilitative as well as constraining.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
People who violate generally held social norms might be behaving consistently with particular norms in a relevant subculture.
“Of course people who violate generally held social norms might be behaving consistently with particular norms in a relevant subculture.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.
If parenthood out of wedlock is stigmatized, there should be less parenthood out of wedlock.
“if parenthood out of wedlock is stigmatized, there should be less parenthood out of wedlock.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 5.
Because of prevailing social norms within relevant communities, money itself is not fungible.
“Because of prevailing social norms within relevant communities, money itself is not fungible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Viviana A. Zelizer, The Social Meaning of Money (1994)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ 62.
People rapidly internalize social norms about what their roles entail.
“People rapidly internalize social norms about what their roles entail.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Roles and freedom.
We cannot fully control the roles in which we find ourselves.
“We cannot fully control the roles in which we find ourselves.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Without social norms, coercion or economic incentives, perhaps with large financial investments, would be required to solve collective action problems.
“Without social norms, coercion or economic incentives-perhaps with large financial investments-would be required to solve collective action problems.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4. Citizens and consumers.
In your capacity as a citizen, you might urge a result that is quite different from what you seek through your market behavior in your capacity as a consumer.
“The example shows that in your capacity as a citizen, you might urge a result-with respect to (say) the duties of polluters or commercial broadcasters-that is quite different from what you seek through your market behavior in your capacity as a consumer.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth 7-28 (1988)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 5.
The existence of norms involving money suggests that it may not be possible to infer global judgments from particular consumption choices that are dependent on context-specific norms.
“The existence of norms involvng money suggests that it may not be possible to infer global judgments from particular consumption choices that are dependent on context-specific norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 1996]
Good social norms solve collective action problems by encouraging people to do useful things that they would not do without the relevant norms.
“Good social norms solve collective action problems by encouraging people to do useful things that they would not do without the relevant norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Edna Ullmann-Margalit, The Emergence of Norms 18-133 (1977)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Robert C. Ellickson, Order Without Law (1991)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ C. Social Meanings
Social meaning is a product of social norms.
“Social meaning is a product of social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Thomas C. Schelling, Micromotives and Macrobehavior 213-14 (1978)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Lessig, supra note 24, at 1014-16
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Citizens and consumers.
There are important contextual differences between market behavior and voting behavior.
“In this sense there are important contextual differences between market behavior and voting behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3.
In the absence of social norms, we would be unable to understand one another.
“In the absence of social norms, we would be unable to understand one another.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisereasoning§ 3.
Norms make freedom possible.
“In fact norms make freedom possible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Elster, The Cement of Society, supra note 26
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Social norms may be ineffective.
“On the other hand, social norms may be ineffective.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 5.
Money is often compartmentalized.
“Consider, for example, the fact that money is often compartmentalized.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Richard H. Thaler, Mental Accounting Matters (Dec.1993)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 62.
Roles are accompanied by a wide range of included and excluded reasons for action.
“Roles are accompanied by a wide range of included and excluded reasons for action.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Efforts by private or public authorities to stigmatize certain acts may have the opposite effect.
“Efforts by private or public authorities to stigmatize certain acts may have the opposite effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 3.
Norms can drive a wedge between people's public actions or statements and their private judgments or desires.
“In particular, norms can drive a wedge between people's public actions or statements and their private judgments or desires.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kuran, supra note 17, at 3-12
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Norms can be an especially cheap way of ensuring against the unfortunate consequences of prisoner's dilemmas.
“Norms can be an especially cheap way of ensuring against the unfortunate consequences of prisoner's dilemmas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Roles and law.
Law can help constitute roles.
“Law can help constitute roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Beliefs about facts help generate roles.
“Certainly beliefs about facts help generate roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Understandings of facts may be a function of roles and accompanying norms.
“The converse is also true: Understandings of facts may be a function of roles and accompanying norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As Choices
To explain or predict behavior, it is important not only to know about choices but also to have some account of what underlies choices, or of what choices are for, and in this way to introduce an account of motivation.
“These points suggest that to explain or predict behavior, it is important not only to know about choices but also to have some account of what underlies choices, or of what choices are for, and in this way to intro-”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Norms about behavior are interpenetrated with beliefs about harm and risk.
“Norms about behavior are interpenetrated with beliefs about harm and risk.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
The social meanings of acts are something about which individuals can do relatively little.
“As with social norms and social roles, the social meanings of acts are something about which individuals can do relatively little”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social Meanings
Social norms can be produced by social roles.
“Social norms can also be produced by social roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
Even in democracies, the deterrent effect of social norms on acts and beliefs creates a sharp disjunction between public acts (including speech) and private thought.
“Even in democracies, the deterrent effect of social norms on acts and beliefs creates a sharp disjunction between public acts (including speech) and private thought.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ A. Preferences As Choices
Extremeness aversion is itself a contextual taste, one that varies with both setting and governing norms.
“In fact extremeness aversion is itself a contextual”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ A. Preferences As Choices
Because of norms, even the weakest axioms of revealed preference theory can fail.
“And because of norms, even the weakest axioms of revealed preference theory can fail.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
When the belief about whether smoking causes harm shifts, the norm shifts as well.
“When the belief shifts, the norm shifts as well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Judgments about fact are entangled with social norms.
“Judgments about fact are similarly entangled with social norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
There is a bandwagon effect when sanctions diminish or disappear, as many people join the group opposing the existing norm and urging a new one.
“As I have said, there is a bandwagon effect when those sanctions diminish or disappear, as many people join the group opposing the existing norm and urging a new one.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
A state of affairs may persist even though there is widespread opposition to it.
“Hence a state of affairs may persist even though there is widespread opposition to it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As Choices
Normative arguments on the basis of choices alone will run into serious trouble.
“Normative arguments on the basis of choices alone 12 will also run into serious trouble.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
People often act in accordance with norms they wish were otherwise or even despise.
“People often act in accordance with norms that they wish were otherwise or even despise.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903
People may support an existing norm publicly not because they are genuinely committed to it, but because they fear social sanctions.
“People may support an existing norm publicly not because they are genuinely committed to it, but because they fear social sanctions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Beliefs about natural differences between men and women, or blacks and whites, affect social understandings about appropriate roles.
“Thus beliefs about natural differences between men and women, or blacks and whites, affect social understandings about the appropriate roles of men and women or blacks and whites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social Meanings
If the social meaning of condom use is a confession, an accusation, or a statement that one is not spontaneous, there will be a social norm discouraging condom use.
“Suppose that the social meaning of condom use is a confession, an accusation, 94 or a statement,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [94]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The social meaning of condom use is a confession, an accusation, or a statement that one is not spontaneous.
- Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As Choices
If this is right, it is impossible to explain behavior by reference to choices, without using the very apparatus that the revealed preference idea was intended to eliminate.
“And if this is right, it is impossible to explain behavior by reference to choices, without using the very apparatus that the”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As Choices
Because of the importance of context and surrounding norms, a choice of one good over another may tell us little about further choices unless we know a lot about the motivations and context of the choice.
“Because of the importance of context and surrounding norms, a choice of one good over another may tell us little about further choices unless we know a lot about the motivations and context of the choice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Norms and judgments about risk are hard to separate.
“In fact norms and judgments about risk are hard to separate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
When people see that apparent differences between social groups are not grounded in fact, the roles associated with group members may shift accordingly.
“When people see that apparent differences between social groups are not grounded in fact, the roles associated with group members may shift accordingly.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Norms and roles pervasively influence judgments about facts.
“And norms and roles pervasively influence judgments about facts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [109]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
What can be said and done, in terms of social meanings and social norms, is a function of roles.
“What can be said and done-in terms of social meanings and social norms-is a function of roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
There are contexts in which a person or a small group of people may make inroads on social meanings.
“On the other hand, there are contexts in which a person or a small group of people may make inroads on social meanings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As Choices
Extremeness aversion is at least partly a product of social norms.
“Extremeness aversion is at least partly a product of social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
Over the long run, norms may affect private thought itself.
“And eventually the norms may affect private thought itself”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As Choices
From the bare fact of particular choices, it is not always possible to make robust claims about future choices.
“From the bare fact of (particular) choices, it is not always possible to make robust claims about future choices.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social Meanings
Social norms can be an artifact of social meaning.
“But social norms can also be an artifact of social meaning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ CHOICES AND PREFERENCES
Much of legal and political debate about whether the state should respect preferences is based on a confusion stemming from inadequate specification of what preferences are.
“It follows that much of legal and political debate-about whether the state should respect”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Private groups often attempt to bring about changes in meanings and the norms that produce them.
“Hence private groups often attempt to bring about changes in meanings and the norms that produce them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About Facts
Social norms are pervasively a function of beliefs.
“The same is true for social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903
There can be a tipping point when norms start to push in new directions.
“Thus there can be a”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
Any preference for an action is partly a function of social norms and the agent's attitude toward those norms.
“We might say, then, that any preference for an action is partly a function of social norms and the agent's attitude toward those norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
General dispositions of various kinds manifest themselves in particular choices only in accordance with context.
“But general dispositions of various kinds-to avoid extremes, to comply with (or violate) norms, to fit with expectations associated with role, to drink beer rather than wine-manifest themselves in particular choices only in accordance with context.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4. Preferences.
The disparity between WTA and WTP is connected with the assignment of moral responsibility for the destruction of environmental assets, which are perceived as intrinsic goods.
“Some intriguing work suggests that the disparity between WTA and WTP is connected with the assignment of moral responsibility for the destruction of environmental assets, which are perceived as intrinsic goods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [152]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
Seemingly anomalous behavior can result from anticipated shame or pride.
“As the five tales at the beginning of the Article show, 139 seemingly anomalous behavior can result from anticipated shame or pride.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
People may act consistently with a social norm, even if they believe the norm is wrong and wish the norm were otherwise, because they usually do not want to feel shame.
“People usually do not want to feel shame, and for this reason they may act consistently with a social norm, even if they believe the norm is wrong and wish the norm were otherwise.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: People usually do not want to feel shame.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
Norms, meanings, and roles are part of the complex and unruly set of factors that help produce choices.
“If preferences are what lie behind choices, then norms, meanings, and roles are part of the complex and unruly set of factors that help produce choices.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ A. In General
The extent of a norm's effect on choices depends on five factors, including the intensity of the norm and the nature of the norm.
“The extent of its effect will depend on five factors: (1) the intensity of the norm (exactly how much opprobrium attaches to a violation?);(2) the nature of the norm (what kind of attitude is signalled by a violation?what kind of”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
Some of the difference between WTP and WTA has a great deal to do with social norms and social meanings.
“My suggestion is that some of the difference between WTP and WTA has a great deal to do with social norms and social meanings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 4. Preferences.
The initial grant of an entitlement of some good X to some person A can make A value X far more than he would if X had been initially allocated to B.
“The initial grant of an entitlement of some good X to some person A can make A value X far more than he would if X had been initially allocated to B.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [140]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [141]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [142]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ 4. Preferences.
The initial allocation-the legal rule saying who owns what before people begin to contract with one another-serves to create, to legitimate, and to reinforce social understandings about presumptive rights of ownership.
“The initial allocation-the legal rule saying who owns what before people begin to contract with one another-serves to create, to legitimate, and to reinforce social understandings about presumptive rights of ownership.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Choices and meanings.
Courtesy can be made more or less costly by social meaning.
“Thus courtesy can be made more or less costly by social meaning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
People who announce their willingness to accept cash for the loss of a pond or a species feel shame.
“In these circumstances, people who announce their willingness to accept cash for the loss of a pond or a species feel shame.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
Those who refuse to pay an enormous or infinite amount to save an environmental amenity do not feel the same degree of shame (if they feel shame at all).
“By contrast, those who refuse to pay an enormous or infinite amount to save an environmental amenity do not feel the same degree of shame (if they feel shame at all). 5”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.
Once we incorporate social norms into our account of choice, we can explain some anomalies in common theories of rationality.
“Once we incorporate social norms into our account of choice, we can explain some anomalies in common theories of rationality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ 4. Preferences.
People want to avoid or minimize the feeling that they have been morally culpable for producing the loss of an environmental amenity.
“People want to avoid or minimize the feeling that they have been morally culpable for producing the loss of an environmental amenity.15 3”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [153]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Choices and roles.
The choice to offer gifts is a function of role.
“The “choice” to offer gifts is a function of role.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ 2. Choices and roles.
In some cultures, a social role entails a great deal of gift-giving to hierarchical superiors.
“In some cultures, a social role entails a great deal of gift-giving to hierarchical superiors.1 3 6”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [136]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ B. Tools
Changing norms with respect to smoking are almost certainly a result-at least in part-of information from the government about health risks.
“Changing norms with respect to smoking are almost certainly a result-at least in part-of information from the government about health risks.t7 1”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [171]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
From the standpoint of the individual agent, rational decision is very much a function of social norms.
“It follows that from the standpoint of the individual agent, rational decision is very much a function of social norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ B. Tools
The difference in effectiveness of framed information has a great deal to do with social norms and social meanings and in particular with shame.
“The difference has a great deal to do with social norms and social meanings and in particular with shame.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ B. Tools
People are generally loss averse, in the sense that they are made more unhappy by a loss of a certain amount than they are made happy by an equivalent gain.
“People are generally loss averse, in the sense that they are made more unhappy by a loss of a certain amount than they are made happy by an equivalent gain.175”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [175]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ C. Anomalies, Shame, Altruism, and Free-Riding
When two people are to divide an amount given to them under the stated conditions, the offeror in the ultimatum game feels shame given prevailing norms if he offers a penny or a dollar from a sum of (say) $200.
“When two people are to divide an amount given to them under the stated conditions, the offeror in the ultimatum game feels shame given prevailing norms' 5 5 -that he is demonstrating that he is a greedy and even horrible person-if he offers a penny or a dollar from a sum of (say) $200.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [155]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ B. Tools
Reactions to information turn a good deal on how the information is framed.
“Hence reactions to information turn a good deal on how the information is framed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ 153.
Experimental work shows that people contribute to a shared good, and refuse to free ride, far more often than economists predict.
“Experimental work shows that people contribute to a shared good, and refuse to free ride, far more often than economists predict.' 5 9”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [159]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation§ C. Anomalies, Shame, Altruism, and Free-Riding
The offeree feels mistreated-treated in a contemptuous way-if a small or token amount is suggested.
“For his part, the offeree feels mistreated-treated in a contemptuous way-if a small or token amount is suggested.' 5 6”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [156]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ B. Tools
Smoking does not have the same cachet in the African-American community that it has among whites.
“Smoking does not have the same cachet in the African-American community that it has among whites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 153.
Apparent puzzles of rationality are often a product of social norms and moral judgments that are intertwined with those norms.
“My suggestion, then, is that apparent puzzles of rationality are often a product of social norms and moral judgments that are intertwined with those norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 153.
The desire to contribute to a collective good is palpably a function of social norms.
“The desire to contribute to a collective good is palpably a function of social norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and Paternalism
Changes in norms and meanings can promote human well-being.
“Changes in norms and meanings can promote human well-being.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ 4. Preferences.
Feelings of moral culpability are tightly connected with prevailing social norms.
“Feelings of moral culpability are tightly connected with prevailing social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 153.
When people appear to behave irrationally, in the sense that they violate predictions based on economic assumptions, it is often because social norms are at work.
“When people appear to behave irrationally, in the sense that they violate predictions based on economic assumptions, it is often because social norms are at work.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
Norms will create many of the costs and benefits that enter into an agent's decision.
“My central point here is that norms will create many of the costs and benefits that enter into an agent's decision.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]
No conception of how the individual's calculus will come out is free of an array of ends, seen as such partly because of social influences, including social norms.
“No such conception will be free of an array of ends, seen as such partly because of social influences, including social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ 153.
If social norms do not lead most people to contribute, contributions decrease steadily and dramatically.
“If social norms do not lead most people to contribute, contributions decrease steadily and dramatically.16 0”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [160]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ A. Norms and Paternalism
Sometimes private groups are unable to produce desirable change on their own.
“But sometimes private groups are unable to produce desirable change on their own.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and Paternalism
Private groups can test or even change norms.
“Private groups can test or even change norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and Paternalism
Some norms, meanings, and roles operate as severe limits on autonomy or well-being.
“Nonetheless, some of them operate as severe limits on autonomy or well-being, and certainly they should not be treated as fixed or given regardless of their content or consequences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ B. Citizens and Consumers
Norms and values are the principal determinant of political judgment.
“Norms and values are instead the principal determinant of political judgment.2 12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [212]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and Consumers
What people favor as political participants can be different from what they favor as consumers.
“But what people favor as political participants can be different from what they favor as consumers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ C. Risk, Autonomy, and Well-Being
Social norms, meanings, and roles may undermine individual autonomy.
“It should be clear that social norms, meanings, and roles may undermine individual autonomy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ B. Citizens and Consumers
The difference between political and consumption choices might be explained by the fact that political behavior reflects judgments made for a collectivity.
“The difference might be explained by the fact that political behavior reflects judgments made for a collectivity.2 14”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [214]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given§ D. Caste
For someone who is African-American, female, or handicapped, existing meanings are possible obstacles to autonomy or well-being.
“For someone who is African-American, female, or handicapped, existing meanings are possible obstacles to autonomy or well-being.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Legal responses.
Much legal regulation has the goal of inculcating relevant norms.
“Much legal regulation has this goal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and Consumers
Democratic outcomes are distinct from those that emerge from markets.
“It is in part for this reason that democratic outcomes are distinct from those that emerge from markets.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 196.
What gives rise to the collective action problem is an array of individual judgments and desires that are themselves (in all likelihood) a function of social norms.
“What gives rise to the collective action problem is an array of individual judgments and desires that are themselves (in all likelihood) a function of social norms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given§ B. Citizens and Consumers
The norms at work in democratic arenas can produce different choices from those produced by markets.
“In all of these ways, the norms at work in democratic arenas can produce different choices from those produced by markets.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Legal responses.
These laws have an effect in shaping social norms and social meanings.
“But they have an effect in shaping social norms and social meanings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: There is a general norm in favor of obeying the law.
- Interpretationreasoning§ 196.
Any collective action problem can be characterized as such only because of a wide range of norms, and not only because of the particular norm that is said to be producing the problem.
“The difficulty is that any collective action problem can be characterized as such only because of a wide range of norms, and not only because of the particular norm that is said to be producing the problem.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and Consumers
Political behavior reflects a variety of social norms that are distinctive to the context of politics.
“For this reason it reflects a variety of social norms that are distinctive to the context of politics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and Consumers
There is an evident and pervasive difference between people's choices as consumers and their choices as citizens.
“There is an evident and pervasive difference between people's choices as consumers and their choices as citizens.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given§ B. Citizens and Consumers
A good deal of empirical work shows that people's judgments about politics are not a product of their self-interest, narrowly understood.
“In fact a good deal of empirical work shows that people's judgments about politics are not a product of their self-interest, narrowly under-stood.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ 196.
One norm in a collective action problem might be the cheapest target of norm management.
“Just as one person in a legal controversy might be the cheapest cost avoider, so one norm in a collective action problem might be the cheapest target of norm management.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSION
The particular choices made by people in markets do not suggest global or acontextual valuations of relevant goods.
“Certainly the particular choices made by people in markets-in their capacity as consumers or laborers-do not suggest global or acontextual valuations of relevant goods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSION
Norms and roles affect both public action and public talk, in ways that can much disguise how people think privately.
“Norms and roles affect both public action and public talk, in ways that can much disguise how people think privately.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- It may state two separate claims as one. 87
- Probably not a substantial claim. 253
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone given§ 4. Preferences.In general, the range of the disparity between WTA and WTP appears to vary from slight disparities to a ratio of more than four to one, with WTA usually doubling WTP.
“In general, the range of the disparity appears to vary from slight disparities to a ratio of more than four to one, with WTA usually doubling WTP.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingcitation§ 4. Preferences.In a related experiment, the mean willingness to pay to avoid the kill option for a tree-like houseplant was $7.81, and the mean willingness to accept payment to allow a tree to be killed was $18.43.
“The mean willingness to pay (WTP) to avoid the “kill” option was $7.81.The mean willingness to accept (WTA) payment to allow a tree to be killed was $18.43.146”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [146]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone given§ B. Citizens and ConsumersPeople without health care are not more likely to support laws creating a right to health care; people recently victimized by crime are not more likely to support aggressive policies against crime.
“People without health care are not more likely to support laws creating a right to health care; people recently victimized by crime are not more likely to support aggressive policies against crime.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ B. LitteringAbout one million Americans begin smoking each year, many of them teenagers.
“about one million Americans begin smoking each year, many of them teenagers”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ingrassia & Springen, Waiting to Exhale
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ A. Ultimatums and Fairness 1Ultimatum game results cut across the level of the stakes and across diverse cultures.
“These results cut across the level of the stakes and across diverse cultures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Camerer & Thaler, Ultimatums, Dictators and Manners
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ B. LitteringAbout 400,000 Americans die each year from smoking-related causes.
“About 400,000 Americans die each year from smoking-related causes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McGinnis & Foege, Actual Causes of Death in the United States
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ John Jones lives in California.Behavior is pervasively a function of norms.
“I urge that behavior is pervasively a function of norms”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ B. LitteringNationally, 22.9% of white teenagers smoked in 1993, a number basically unchanged in the last decade.
“Nationally, 22.9% of white teenagers smoked in 1993, a number that basically has been unchanged in the last decade.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ingrassia & Springen, Waiting to Exhale
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ B. LitteringIn 1993, only about 4.4% of African-American teenagers smoked, a number four times smaller than a decade before.
“But in the same year, only about 4.4% of African-American teenagers smoked, a number that is four times smaller than the number a decade before.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ingrassia & Springen, Waiting to Exhale
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ B. LitteringThe reduction in smoking among African-American teenagers was 50% between 1984 and 1992, whereas the reduction among African-American adults was 25%.
“It is notable that the reduction in smoking among African-American teenagers was 50% between 1984 and 1992, whereas the reduction among African-American adults was 25%”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisereasoning§ A. Ultimatums and Fairness 1Using standard assumptions about rationality, self-interest, and choice, economists predict that in the ultimatum game the first player should offer a penny and the second player should accept.
“Using standard assumptions about rationality, self-interest, and choice, economists predict that the first-player should offer a penny and the second player should accept.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]In all cases of smoking, diet/activity, alcohol, firearms, sexual behavior, motor vehicles, and illicit drugs, new norms could save lives.
“In all these cases, new norms could save lives.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ John Jones lives in California.Changes in norms might be the best way to improve social well-being.
“that changes in norms might be the best way to improve social well-being”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]A regulatory policy that targets social norms may complement or work more efficiently than existing regulatory approaches.
“It may complement or work more efficiently than existing regulatory approaches.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ John Jones lives in California.Government inevitably does have a large role in norm management.
“and that government deserves to have, and in any case inevitably does have, a large role in norm management.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]A regulatory policy that targets social norms may well be the cheapest and most effective strategy available to a government seeking to discourage risky behavior.
“A regulatory policy that targets social norms may well be the cheapest and most effective strategy available to a government seeking to discourage risky behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisenone given§ 27. SeeHistorically the market economy has been justified as a way of softening social divisions by allowing people to interact on a mutually beneficial basis.
“historically it has been justified on just this ground, as a way of softening social divisions by allowing people to interact with one another on a mutually beneficial basis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The content of norms depends on the context.
“and the content of norms depends on the context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsSocial norms may or may not promote liberty and well-being; they may or may not be easily malleable or go very deep into people's understandings.
“Social norms may or may not promote liberty and well-being; they may or may not be easily malleable or go very deep into people's understandings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Collective action may be necessary to enable people to change norms that they do not like.
“Collective action-in the form of information campaigns, persuasion, economic incentives, or legal coercion-may be necessary to enable people to change norms that they do not like.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsThe governing attitudes span an exceptionally wide range.
“The governing attitudes span an exceptionally wide range.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Norms can tax or subsidize choice.
“Norms can tax or subsidize choice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 27. SeeA good deal of governmental action is self-consciously designed to change norms, meanings, or roles, and in that way to increase individual benefits or decrease individual costs associated with certain acts.
“A good deal of governmental action is self-consciously designed to change norms, meanings, or roles, and in that way to increase the individual benefits or decrease the individual costs associated with certain acts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Current social states can be far more fragile than is generally thought; small shocks to publicly endorsed norms and roles decrease the cost of displaying deviant norms and rapidly bring about large-scale changes in publicly displayed judgments and desires.
“current social states can be far more fragile than is generally thought-small shocks to publicly endorsed norms and roles decrease the cost of displaying deviant norms and rapidly bring about large-scale changes in publicly displayed judgments and desires.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: People's private judgments and desires diverge greatly from public appearances.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsSometimes norms are codified in law.
“Sometimes norms are codified in law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIn any particular form, norms, meanings, and roles can impose severe restrictions on well-being and autonomy.
“but in any particular form, these things can impose severe restrictions on well-being and autonomy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 27. SeeThe interaction of these forces will produce outcomes of a particular sort in accordance with the particular context.
“The interaction of these forces will produce outcomes of a particular sort in accordance with the particular context.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIf the role of secretary is not associated with susceptibility to unwanted sexual attention, there will be less unwanted sexual attention.
“If the role of secretary is not associated with susceptibility to unwanted sexual attention, there will be less unwanted sexual attention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIf smokers seem like pitiful dupes rather than exciting daredevils, the incidence of smoking will go down.
“If, for example, smokers seem like pitiful dupes rather than exciting daredevils, the incidence of smoking will go down.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Social NormsIf someone behaves in a way inconsistent with social norms, public disapproval may produce embarrassment or perhaps shame and a desire to hide.
“If someone behaves in a way inconsistent with social norms, public disapproval may produce embarrassment or perhaps shame and a desire to hide.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 27. SeeGovernment might try to inculcate or to remove shame, fear of which can be a powerful deterrent to behavior.
“Thus government might try to inculcate or to remove shame, fear of which can be a powerful deterrent to behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsSocial norms may or may not begin or maintain themselves as a result of reflective judgments about fairness and utility.
“They may or may not begin or maintain themselves as a result of reflective judgments about, for example, fairness and utility.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainNorms vary a great deal across cultures, and sometimes even within cultures.
“Of course norms vary a great deal across cultures, and sometimes even within cultures.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Social NormsSometimes the unpleasant feelings brought about by violations of social norms are intense, and the social consequences of these feelings, and of anticipating them, can be substantial.
“Sometimes the unpleasant feelings brought about by violations of social norms are intense, and the social consequences of these feelings, and (perhaps even more) of anticipating them, can be substantial.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ 27. SeeGovernment cannot avoid affecting social norms.
“the role of government, which cannot avoid affecting social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Government cannot avoid affecting social norms.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]If norms changed, existing inequalities would be greatly reduced.
“If norms changed, existing inequalities would be greatly reduced.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIf people who fail to recycle are seen as oddballs, more people will recycle.
“If people who fail to recycle are seen as oddballs, more people will recycle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIt is impossible for an individual to alter norms determining whether the act of smoking seems daring, or the act of recycling seems exotic, or the act of opposing sexual harassment seems humorless.
“it is impossible for an individual to alter norms determining whether the act of smoking seems daring, or the act of recycling seems exotic, or the act of opposing sexual harassment seems humorless.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainSocial norms play a part in determining choices.
“social norms play a part in determining choices”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Societies experience norm bandwagons and norm cascades.
“Hence societies experience norm bandwagons and norm cascades.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIndividual agents have little control over social norms, social meanings, and social roles, even when they wish these to be very different from what they are.
“individual agents have little control over social norms, social meanings, and social roles, even when they wish these to be very different from what they are.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainHuman beings can live, and human liberty can exist, only within a system of norms, meanings, and roles.
“Human beings can live, and human liberty can exist, only within a system of norms, meanings, and roles”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]In positive work, the idea of 'preferences' is too coarse-grained, disregarding contextual factors that produce diverse choices in diverse settings.
“In positive work, the idea is too coarse-grained, in the sense that it disregards contextual factors that produce diverse choices in diverse settings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ II. DEMNITIONS AND CONCEPTSSocial norms are the most central of these, since they provide the foundation for both social roles and social meanings.
“Social norms are the most central of these, since they provide the foundation for both social roles and social meanings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainIf homosexual marriages are consistent with social norms, social practices will be much altered.
“if homosexual marriages are consistent with social norms, social practices will be much altered.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainPeople's choices are a function of their particular social role.
“people's choices are a function of their particular social role”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]There can be a serious obstacle to freedom in the fact that individual choices are a function of social norms, social meanings, and social roles, which individual agents may deplore, and over which individual agents have little or no control.
“There can be a serious obstacle to freedom in the fact that individual choices are a function of social norms, social meanings, and social roles, which individual agents may deplore, and over which individual agents have little or no control.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsLack of education produces a good deal of shame in certain communities; so too with the decision to be promiscuous, or to use alcohol, cigarettes, or unlawful drugs.
“lack of education produces a good deal of shame in certain communities; so too with the decision to be promiscuous, or to use alcohol, cigarettes, or unlawful drugs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Social norms can much affect (though they need not determine) self-conception.
“They can much affect (though they need not determine) self-conception as well.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]When social norms appear not to be present, it is only because they are so taken for granted that they seem invisible.
“when social norms appear not to be present, it is only because they are so taken for granted that they seem invisible.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsThere are social norms about nearly every aspect of human behavior.
“In fact there are social norms about nearly every aspect of human behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Choice among options is a function not only of the intrinsic value of the option but also of the reputational benefit or cost of the choice and of the effects of the choice on one's self-conception.
“choice among options is a function not only of (a) the intrinsic value of the option-a book, ajob, a drink-but also of (b) the reputational benefit or cost of the choice and of (c) the effects of the choice on one's self-conception.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsThe relevant sanctions create a range of unpleasant (but sometimes pleasant) emotional states in people who have violated norms.
“The relevant sanctions create a range of unpleasant (but sometimes pleasant) emotional states in people who have violated norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 27. SeeThere is a thin line between education and provision of information on the one hand and attempted norm-change on the other.
“There is a thin line between education and provision of information on the one hand and attempted norm-change on the other.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]Social norms are part and parcel of systems of race and sex equality.
“Social norms are also part and parcel of systems of race and sex equality.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 27. SeeThe inculcation of shame operates as a kind of tax; the removal of shame might be seen as the elimination of a tax or even as a kind of subsidy.
“The inculcation of shame operates as a kind of tax; the removal of shame might be seen as the elimination of a tax or even as a kind of subsidy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Some norms are obstacles to human well-being and autonomy.
“Some norms are obstacles to human well-being and autonomy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Those efforts to drive a wedge between rationality and social norms are doomed to failure.
“Those efforts are doomed to failure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Choice might be assessed in terms of intrinsic value, reputational effects, and effects on self-conception.
“we might assess choice in terms of (1) intrinsic value, (2) reputational effects, and (3) effects on selfconception.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ G. An Insufficiently Charted DomainThe social or expressive meaning of acts is an ingredient in choice.
“the social or expressive meaning of acts is an ingredient in choice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Social norms are a key determinant in reputational benefit or cost.
“Social norms are a key determinant in reputational benefit or cost.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Social NormsPolitical correctness occurs whenever reputational incentives impose high costs on deviant behavior.
“It occurs whenever reputational incentives impose high costs on deviant behavior.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 27. SeeA market economy will have predictable effects on norms.
“A market economy will, for example, have predictable effects on norms”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Roles and freedom.By sharply constraining the domain of permissible actions, roles simplify things and, in that sense, increase personal freedom.
“By sharply constraining the domain of permissible actions, roles simplify things and, in that sense, increase personal freedom.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 4. Citizens and consumers.In their private capacity as consumers, employers, or family members, people may do something that they believe, on balance, to be unjust, and as citizens, they may support measures that better reflect their convictions.
“In their private capacity-as consumers, employers, or family members-people may do something that they believe, on balance, to be unjust, and as citizens, they may support measures that better reflect their convictions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisereasoning§ 3.Social life is not feasible, not even imaginable, without social norms.
“Social life is not feasible-not even imaginable-without them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Elster, The Cement of Society, supra note 26
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Roles and freedom.Many roles are ascriptive and not chosen, even in post-feudal societies.
“Many roles are ascriptive and not chosen, even in post-feudal societies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Roles and freedom.The existence of a clear role makes communication much easier.
“The existence of a clear role makes communication much easier.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.Norms establish conventions about the meanings of actions.
“Norms establish conventions about the meanings of actions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Legal efforts to inculcate social norms may be futile or even counterproductive because the source of the effort may be disqualifying.
“For example, a serious problem with legal efforts to inculcate social norms is that the source of the effort may be disqualifying.Such efforts may be futile or even counterproductive.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 4. Citizens and consumers.Acting as citizens, many people try to change social practices, and they often try to do this by changing social norms associated with a particular role.
“Acting as citizens, many people try to change social practices, and they often try to do this by changing social norms associated with a particular role.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 62.Violations of role-specific norms can seem jarring and produce prompt social punishment or reward.
“Violations of role-specific norms can seem jarring and produce prompt social punishment (or reward).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Roles and law.All of these measures can be seen as attempts to create new or better norms to define the relevant roles.
“All of these measures can be seen as attempts to create new or better norms to define the relevant roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Reputational pressures can interact in complex ways with beliefs about intrinsic value.
“reputational pressures can interact in complex ways with beliefs about intrinsic value.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Roles and freedom.Large-scale changes in social definitions of roles normally require collective action, whether private or public.
“Large-scale changes in social definitions of roles normally require collective action, whether private or public-a point with considerable importance for those interested in the appropriate domain of law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Citizens and consumers.The difference between citizen and consumer is connected to the fact that a citizen is helping to make a judgment not simply for himself but for a collectivity.
“In all cases the difference is connected to the fact that a citizen is helping to make a judgment not simply for himself but for a collectivity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.People's self-conceptions are very divergent, and each of our self-conceptions has many dimensions.
“People's self-conceptions are very divergent, and each of our selfconceptions has many dimensions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Roles and freedom.Many roles are assigned rather than voluntarily assumed.
“But many roles are assigned rather than voluntarily assumed-child, man, African-American, old person, short person, and more.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ B. Social RolesEach of these roles is accompanied by a remarkably complex network of appropriate norms.
“Each of these roles is accompanied by a remarkably complex network of appropriate norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 1996] 919It can be very costly to exit from the norm community in which one finds oneself, and the fact that one has been raised in that community may make other options seem unthinkable.
“On the other hand, it can be very costly to exit from the norm community in which one finds oneself, and the fact that one has been raised in that community may make other options seem unthinkable”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kuran, supra note 17, at 176-95
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Perceived intrinsic value is emphatically a result of social forces.
“Perceived intrinsic value is emphatically a result of social forces”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 4. Citizens and consumers.Citizens do or say things just because of existing social norms, which impose sanctions on publicly expressed dissident behavior or judgments; in their private capacity, people may be freer to do or say as they wish.
“In addition, citizens do or say things just because of existing social norms, which impose sanctions on publicly expressed dissident behavior or judgments; in their private capacity, people may be freer to do or say as they (in a sense, and subject to the prevailing norms) wish.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The fact that some people like to reject social norms is highly relevant to law.
“The fact that some people like to reject social norms is highly relevant to law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Those reputational consequences might be favorable rather than unfavorable.
“Of course those consequences might be favorable rather than unfavorable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]Some people depart from the prevailing norm because of their reflective judgments.
“Some people depart from the prevailing norm because of their reflective judgments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ B. Social RolesMany norms are intensely role-specific, and law is often self-consciously concerned with social roles.
“Many norms are intensely role-specific, and law is often self-consciously concerned with social roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 5.It may be wrong to draw from insurance choices general conclusions about the appropriate domain of tort law.
“If so, it may be wrong to draw from insurance choices general conclusions about (say) the appropriate domain of tort law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3.Social norms reduce freedom, understood broadly as the power to do whatever one would like to do.
“In a way social norms reduce freedom, understood very broadly as the power to do whatever one would like to do.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903Many efforts to change law are at least partly an outgrowth of the difference between citizens and consumers.
“In fact many efforts to change law are at least partly an outgrowth of the difference between citizens and consumers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Roles and law.Prevailing roles and norms can be fortified by legal requirements; they may even owe their existence to law.
“Prevailing roles and norms can be fortified by legal requirements; they may even owe their existence to law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Roles and freedom.Many roles cannot easily be rejected in most societies.
“And many roles cannot easily be rejected in most societiesdriver, employee, student, citizen, family member.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Many of us may want not to be conformists, but also want not to diverge too much from what other people do and think.
“many of us may want not to be conformists, but also want not to diverge too much from what other people do and think.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Intrinsic value, reputational value, and self-conception.Perceptions of intrinsic value are often a function of social norms.
“perceptions of intrinsic value will be often a function of social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Roles and law.Often law tries to redefine roles.
“Often law tries to redefine roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996] 919To the extent that people can freely enter and exit norm communities, such communities offer important protection against oppressive norms.
“To the extent that people can freely enter and exit norm communities, such communities offer important protection against oppressive norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ [Vol. 96:903When the free rider problem begins to be solved by reducing the cost of acting inconsistently with prevailing norms, private thoughts will be stated publicly, and things can shift very quickly.
“When the free rider problem begins to be solved, through reducing the cost of acting inconsistently with prevailing norms, private thoughts will be stated publicly, and things can shift very quickly.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Preferences As ChoicesRole is an especially important determinant of choice.
“Role is, of course, an especially important determinant of choice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social MeaningsSocial roles are a product of social norms.
“Social roles are similarly a product of social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As ChoicesChoices are inarticulate, and hence imperfect predictors of behavior without an account of what lies behind them.
“Choices are inarticulate, and hence imperfect predictors of behavior without an account of what lies behind them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About FactsChoices, meanings, roles, and norms are commonly based on beliefs about relevant facts.
“Choices, meanings, roles, and norms are commonly based on beliefs about relevant facts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]Private groups' efforts to change meanings and norms have often been highly successful; sometimes they produce norm cascades.
“Often they have been highly successful; sometimes they produce norm cascades.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ CHOICES AND PREFERENCESAttention to the place of norms, meanings, and roles complicates both the idea that preferences are choices and the idea that preferences are mental states behind choices.
“Attention to the place of norms, meanings, and roles complicates both of these ideas; it suggests that for many purposes, it would be best to dispense with the term”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ CHOICES AND PREFERENCESAttention to the functions of norms, meanings, and roles challenges our understanding of notions like choice and preference in much of modern social science.
“My proposition here is that attention to the functions of norms, meanings, and roles challenges our understanding of notions like”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903Political actors might be able to exploit private dissatisfaction with existing norms in order to bring about large-scale social change.
“Political actors might be able to exploit private dissatisfaction with existing norms in order to bring about large-scale social change.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationnone given§ CHOICES AND PREFERENCESThe term preference is quite ambiguous.
“An initial and important problem is that the term”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903Social norms can make people act and talk publicly in ways different from how they actually think, or from how they act and talk privately.
“I have noted that social norms can make people act and talk publicly in ways that are different from how they actually think, or from how they act and talk privately.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Preferences As ChoicesThe social meaning of action can encourage people to make a certain choice, by taxing or subsidizing it; the meaning, and hence the choice, very much depends on the context and the norms that accompany it.
“More broadly, the social meaning of action can encourage people to make a certain choice, by taxing or subsidizing it; the meaning, and hence the choice, very much depends on the context and the norms that accompany it.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The meanings of actions are set by forces that are emphatically human but that are largely outside of the control of the individual agent.
“The meanings of actions are set by forces that are emphatically human but that are largely outside of the control of the individual agent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About FactsChoices are pervasively a function of beliefs.
“Choices are pervasively a function of beliefs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903Individuals who favor changes in norms face a free rider problem; norm entrepreneurs can alert people to a shared complaint and suggest a collective solution.
“As we have seen, individuals who favor changes in norms face a free rider problem; norm entrepreneurs can alert people to the existence of a shared complaint and can suggest a collective solution.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ F. Beliefs About FactsRecent shifts in social norms governing smoking have a great deal to do with prevailing beliefs about whether smoking causes harm to nonsmokers.
“Consider the dramatic recent shifts in social norms governing smoking.Such norms have a great deal to do with prevailing beliefs about whether smoking causes harm to nonsmokers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The most entrenched social meanings are not movable without concerted action on the part of many people.
“But the most entrenched social meanings areby definition-not movable without concerted action on the part of many people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]The meaning of acts is very much a function of context and culture.
“The meaning of acts is very much a function of context and culture.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Preferences As ChoicesChoices are a function of norms, which may be limited to certain settings.
“Choices are a function of norms, which may be limited to certain settings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As ChoicesParticular choices depend on the context and on the norms, meanings, and roles prevailing in that context.
“This is because particular choices depend on the context and on the norms, meanings, and roles prevailing in that context.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903Political actors can exploit widespread dissatisfaction with existing norms by signalling commitment to change, creating coalitions, making defiance less costly, and making compliance with new norms more beneficial.
“Thus political actors, whether public or private, can exploit widespread dissatisfaction with existing norms by (a) signalling their own commitment to change, (b) creating coalitions, (c) making defiance of the norms seem or be less costly, and (d) making compliance with new norms seem or be more beneficial.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ C. Social MeaningsMost conduct, including words, has an expressive function, not in the sense that the actor necessarily intends to communicate a message, but in the sense that people will take the conduct to be expressing certain attitudes and commitments.
“But most conduct (including words) has an expressive function-not in the sense that the actor necessarily intends to communicate a message, but in the sense that people will take the conduct to be expressing certain attitudes and commitments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lessig, supra note 24, at 951-55
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social MeaningsRoles have no content apart from social norms.
“Of course roles have no content apart from social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social MeaningsSocial norms determine the social meaning of action.
“As I have said, social norms determine the social meaning of action.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The expressive dimension of action has everything to do with the actor's particular social role, with the way in which acts conform to, or violate, expectations associated with the role.
“The expressive dimension of action has everything to do with the actor's particular social role-with the way in which acts conform to, or violate, expectations associated with the role.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. Social Norms, Social Roles, and Social MeaningsThe norm in favor of fighting when a male teenager's refusal to fight is socially understood as cowardly is a product of the role.
“Suppose that the social meaning of a male teenager's refusal to fight when insulted is,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The social meaning of a male teenager's refusal to fight when insulted is that he is cowardly.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown data§ 4. Preferences.Behavior is a product of shame and pride, or anticipated shame and pride, and changes in behavior often reflect anticipations of shame and pride.
“In particular, behavior is a product of shame and pride, or anticipated shame and pride, and changes in behavior often reflect anticipations of shame and pride (as seen in all five tales in Part I).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. In GeneralAny particular social norm is only a relevant factor.
“Any particular social norm is only a relevant factor.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The idea of preference as the agent behind choice introduces difficulties that the revealed preference notion was intended to overcome.
“But the idea introduces difficulties of its own-indeed, the difficulties that the”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]It is far from simple to identify a preference as something that stands behind choices and explains them.
“But it is far from simple to identify a”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ IV. CHOICES, NoRms, RoLF.S, AND MEANINGSLaw can affect choice by affecting the sources of shame and pride and associated norms.
“In the process I offer some notations on how this point bears on law and legal policy, especially by showing how law can affect choice by affecting the sources of shame and pride and associated norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]Collective efforts to discourage damaging or risky behavior, or to encourage norms that promote well-being or solve collective action problems, might well be consistent with people's underlying aspirations and judgments.
“Collective efforts to discourage damaging or risky behavior, or to encourage norms that promote well-being or solve collective action problems, might well be consistent with people's underlying aspirations and judgments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Choices and roles.The practice of giving gifts to hierarchical superiors has parallels in a wide range of social gestures signalling an understanding of social hierarchies and roles.
“The practice of giving gifts to hierarchical superiors may seem exotic to most Westerners; but it has parallels in a wide range of social gestures signalling an understanding of social hierarchies and roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. In GeneralWe can understand a norm, with respect to choices, as a subsidy or a tax.
“As I have said, we can understand a norm-with respect to choices-as a subsidy or a tax.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. In GeneralThe mere fact that a norm is as it is need not be decisive with respect to choices.
“The mere fact that a norm is as it is need not be decisive with respect to choices.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ 4. Preferences.The WTA measure assigns responsibility to the individual, while the WTP measure does so more ambiguously.
“The WTA measure assigns responsibility to the individual.The WTP measure does so more ambiguously.'5 2”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [152]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]No simple thing called a preference accounts for choice.
“No simple thing called a”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Preferences are not the building-blocks for a theory of decision; if positive work is to be done very well, whatever we call a preference needs to be unpacked further.
“Preferences are not the building-blocks for a theory of decision; if positive work is to be done very well, whatever we call a”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]The complexity of mental states makes it hard for governments to know how to respond to people's choices.
“Shifting from positive to normative, we can see that the complexity of mental states also makes it hard for governments to know how to respond to people's choices.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]What lies behind a choice in one setting may be quite different from what lies behind a choice in a different time and place.
“What lies behind a choice in one setting may be quite different from what lies behind a choice in a different time and place.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. Preferences Behind ChoicesFrom the standpoint of the individual agent, this is hardly irrational, and it is hardly inconsistent with self-interest.
“From the standpoint of the individual agent, this is hardly irrational, and it is hardly inconsistent with self-interest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.Because of the risk of shame, people will demand a great deal, and they may even refuse any amount that is offered.
“Because of the risk of shame, people will demand a great deal, and they may even refuse any amount that is offered.'50”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [150]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]A standard that relies on too many factors will not be a basis for social science.
“A standard that relies on too many factors will not be a basis for social science.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]People have preferences about their preferences, but they also have preferences at different levels of precision and generality.
“People have preferences about their preferences, but they also have preferences at different levels of precision and generality.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ B. Preferences Behind ChoicesFrom the standpoint of an individual agent, norms provide a part of the background against which costs and benefits are assessed; more specifically, they help identify some of the costs and benefits of action.
“From the standpoint of an individual agent, norms provide a part of the background against which costs and benefits are assessed; more specifically, they help identify some of the costs and benefits of action.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Choices and meanings.Like a social norm, the social meaning of an act can operate as a subsidy to choices or as a tax on them.
“Like a social norm, the social meaning of an act can operate as a subsidy to choices or as a tax on them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ A. In GeneralChoices are affected by social norms.
“Choices are, of course, affected by social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2. Choices and roles.Social inferiors who do not give gifts are signalling something bad or dangerous about themselves, to the effect that they are disrespectful, rebellious, or angry at their superiors.
“Social inferiors who do not give gifts are signalling something bad or dangerous about themselves, to the effect that they are disrespectful, rebellious, or angry at their superiors.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]These difficulties make the idea of preference, as the agent behind choice, too crude.
“These difficulties make the idea of”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]It can be hard to make predictions about individuals or groups without knowing a great deal.
“In this light, it can be hard to make predictions about individuals or groups without knowing a great deal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 4. Preferences.Under prevailing social norms, one ought not to accept even a great deal of money to allow destruction of an environmental amenity-partly because the good at issue is collectively owned, partly because its loss may be irreversible, and partly because it is not thought to be commensurable with its cash equivalent.
“Under prevailing social norms, one ought not to accept even a great deal of money to allow destruction of an environmental amenity-partly because the good at issue is collectively owned, partly because its loss may be irreversible, and partly because it is not thought to be commensurable with its cash equivalent (in the sense that it is not valued in the same way or along a single metric).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ B. Preferences Behind ChoicesSome norms are not rational for society as a whole.
“Undoubtedly some of them are not.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]People's decisions are based on a complex of whims, responses to norms, second-order preferences, aspirations, judgments, emotions, drives of various kinds, conceptions of role, and more, with all these producing particular results depending on the context.
“People's decisions are based on a complex of whims, responses to norms, second-order preferences, aspirations, judgments, emotions, drives of various kinds, conceptions of role, and more, with all these producing particular results depending on the context.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Choices and meanings.If the relevant social norm is that talking a lot, interrupting, and claiming the spotlight reveals strength of character, confidence, and an understanding of one's general importance-whereas listening reveals weakness, low status, and confusion-the social meaning of listening carefully is a tax on the choice of doing so.
“If, by contrast, the relevant social norm is that talking a lot, interrupting, and claiming the spotlight reveals strength of character, confidence, and an understanding of one's general importance-whereas listening reveals weakness, low status, and confusion-the social meaning of listening carefully is a “tax” on the choice of doing so.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Preferences As ChoicesChoices need not suggest acontextual valuation of social goods, and thus even if we want to respect people's valuations, we will have to look not at, but behind, choices.
“Choices need not suggest acontextual valuation of social goods, and thus even if we want to respect people's valuations, we will have to look not at, but behind, choices.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 2. Choices and roles.Choices are pervasively a function of social role.
“Choices are pervasively a function of social role.”
- Also stated in: § 2. Choices and roles. · boosted
“This is pervasively true of human choices, and if it is not visible, it is only because the particular role is so deeply internalized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § 2. Choices and roles. · boosted
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Against the Idea of PreferencesFor many purposes, the whole idea of a preference is confused and misleading because it is ambiguous between choices and underlying psychological forces, and because the mental operations that produce choices are a function of a great many factors, prominently including social norms and social roles.
“From all this we might conclude that for many purposes, the whole idea of a”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903This point gives reason to doubt the elaborate edifice of social science based on notions of preference or metapreference, though much of the edifice can remain if reconstructed on different foundations.
“science based on notions of”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Choices and meanings.If the social meaning of listening carefully is to reveal yourself as a good person who cares about others, then the act of listening carefully is subsidized by its social meaning, in the sense that the benefits of listening carefully are increased over what they would otherwise be.
“If so, the act 1 37 of listening carefully to others is “subsidized” by its social meaning, in the sense that the benefits of listening carefully are increased, by the social meaning, over what they would otherwise be.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Levels and InstitutionsIn some cases, all or almost all people will agree that behavior is a function of the reputational consequences of choice, and that it would be better if the reputational consequences were different.
“In some cases, all or almost all people will agree that behavior is a function not of intrinsic value, and not of effects on people's (well-considered) judgments about their self-conception, but instead a function of the reputational consequences of choice; and they will agree too that it would be better if the reputational consequences were different.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. ToolsCigarette smoking may become less popular if most people cannot afford to smoke.
“Cigarette smoking, for example, may become less popular if most people cannot afford to smoke.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsIn some cases, all or almost all people will support an effort to change a norm, a meaning, or a role.
“In some cases, all or almost all people will support an effort to change a norm, a meaning, or a role.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ B. ToolsNorms, meanings, and roles can be a function of beliefs and beliefs are mutable.
“We have seen that norms, meanings, and roles can be a function of beliefs and that beliefs are mutable.170”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [170]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and PaternalismNorms, meanings, and roles make life possible and much facilitate social engagement.
“They make life possible and they much facilitate social engagement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Norms, meanings, and roles make life possible and much facilitate social engagement.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ A. Some Unusual Collective Action ProblemsIn a now-standard account, social practices would be inefficient were it not for certain social norms; such norms solve collective action problems.
“In a now-standard account, offered by many economists, lawyers, and political scientists,' 9 2 social practices would be inefficient were it not for certain social norms; such norms solve collective action problems.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [192]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Norms help show what it makes sense to do; norms even help identify costs and benefits as such.
“Norms help show what it makes sense to do; norms even help identify costs and benefits as such.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsUse of drugs in a certain community stems from the reputational benefits of using drugs and the reputational costs of refusing to do so.
“All or almost all people might agree, for example, that use of drugs in a certain community stems from the reputational benefits of using drugs and the reputational costs of refusing to do so.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Levels and InstitutionsThe lowest level of government is closest to the people, most responsive to it, and most likely to be trusted by it.
“The lowest level is closest to the people, and in that sense most responsive to it, and most likely to be trusted by it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsNorms typically have a degree of crudeness and rigidity.
“Like rules, norms will typically have a degree of crudeness and rigidity”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 153.When a number of people free ride, and are seen to free ride, cooperation breaks down; in such circumstances the social meaning of cooperation is a willingness to be a dupe or a sucker.
“When a number of people free ride, and are seen to free ride, cooperation breaks down; in such circumstances the social meaning of cooperation is a willingness to be a “dupe” or a “sucker.””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Anomalies, Shame, Altruism, and Free-RidingIf a sum is given to two people under the conditions of the game, good people share; they do not try to keep almost all of the money for themselves.
“If a sum is given to two people under the conditions of the game, good people share; they do not try to keep almost all of the money for themselves.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ 153.Agents are willing to cooperate, and hence to solve collective action problems without coercion, if most people are seen as cooperators; in such circumstances the social meaning of noncooperation is greed or selfishness.
“It also shows that agents are willing to cooperate, and hence to solve collective action problems without coercion, if most people are seen as cooperators; in such circumstances the social meaning of noncooperation is greed or selfishness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ GOVERNMENT AcTION: ON AUTONOMY AND TooLsWhen we attend to the relation between behavior and norms, we see that government has a policy instrument of great potential value.
“The relation between behavior and norms has yet to receive sustained attention; when we attend to that relation, we see that government has a policy instrument of great potential value.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The relation between behavior and norms has yet to receive sustained attention.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Levels and InstitutionsAny such agreement may depend on norms that should themselves be brought into question.
“Of course any such agreement may depend on norms that should themselves be brought into question.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]A positive theory of human rationality will likely do best if it sees norms as taxes on or subsidies to choice, and hence as part of the array of considerations that people face in making decisions.
“As I have suggested, a positive theory of human rationality will likely do best if it sees norms as taxes on or subsidies to choice, and hence as part of the array of considerations that people face in making decisions.16 5”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [165]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and PaternalismObstacles to autonomy and to good lives can also come from bad roles, norms, and meanings.
“Obstacles to autonomy and to good lives can also come from bad roles, norms, and meanings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and PaternalismThe testing of current norms, meanings, and roles is a crucial function of groups that are intermediate between citizens and the state.
“Indeed, the testing of current norms, meanings, and roles is a crucial function of groups that are intermediate between citizens and the state.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Government may seek to affect social norms and social meanings by affecting the wellsprings of shame and pride.
“What I am suggesting is that it may be seeking as well to affect social norms and social meanings by affecting the wellsprings of shame and pride.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisecitation§ B. ToolsThe change among African-American teenagers is universally described as a public health success story, but one that government officials cannot explain.
“The change among African-American teenagers is universally described as a“ 'public health success story,' ”but one that government officials cannot explain.' 8 2”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [182]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]The social meaning of smoking is affected by the existence of time, place, and manner restrictions, even in places lacking those restrictions.
“The social meaning of smoking is, for example, affected by virtue of the existence of time, place, and manner restrictions, even in places lacking those restrictions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 153.Even affluent people may recycle if prevailing norms make it shameful to refuse to do so, or if prevailing norms make it seem wonderful to engage in menial labor.
“So, too, even affluent people may recycle if prevailing norms make it shameful to refuse to do so, or if prevailing norms make it seem wonderful to engage in menial labor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Levels and InstitutionsPurely governmental efforts at norm management may fail for lack of trust.
“Purely governmental efforts at norm management may fail for lack of trust”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ A. Norms and PaternalismOften all or most people would, on reflection, like to see a change in a particular norm; yet they cannot bring about the change on their own, because in his individual capacity, each person has limited power to alter meanings, norms, or roles.
“Often all or most people would, on reflection, like to see a change in a particular norm; 167 and yet they cannot bring about the change on their own, because in his individual capacity, each person has limited power to alter meanings, norms, or roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [167]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. ToolsIf a good becomes more expensive, the social meaning of choosing it may change.
“If a good becomes more expensive, the social meaning of choosing it may change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Norms and PaternalismIt is often hard to know what people would like or prefer, because their judgments and desires are entangled with norms, meanings, and roles, and because once one or more of these is changed, they may be better off, either objectively or subjectively.
“In fact it is often hard to know what people would “like” or prefer, because their judgments and desires are entangled with norms, meanings, and roles, and because once one or more of these is changed, they may be better off, either objectively or subjectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsExisting norms may undermine people's well-being or autonomy by discouraging them from being exposed to diverse conceptions of the good and from giving critical scrutiny to their own conceptions, in such a way as to make it impossible for them to be, in any sense, masters of the narratives of their own lives.
“In some cases, existing norms undermine people's well-being or autonomy, by discouraging them from being exposed to diverse conceptions of the good and from giving critical scrutiny to their own conceptions, in such a way as to make it impossible for them to be, in any sense, masters of the narratives of their own lives.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationcitation§ C. Anomalies, Shame, Altruism, and Free-RidingThe social meaning of the statement, "How about five cents for you?" is contempt; the social meaning of responding, "Great!" is a willingness to be dishonored.
“The social meaning of the statement, “How about five cents for you?” is contempt; the social meaning of responding, “Great!” is a willingness to be dishonored.' 5 7”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [157]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ B. ToolsIt is hard to predict the effects of changes in price on norms.
“Of course it is hard to predict the effects of changes in price on norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsExisting norms may turn a morally irrelevant characteristic-race and gender are the most obvious examples-into a signalling device with respect to social role and associated norms.
“They may turn a morally irrelevant characteristic-race and gender are the most obvious examples-into a signalling device with respect to social role and associated norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsExisting norms may be part and parcel of a caste system.
“In some cases, existing norms may be part and parcel of a caste system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Norms and PaternalismShifts in norms, meanings, and roles are pervasive.
“Of course shifts in norms, meanings, and roles are pervasive.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsIn the case of cleaning up after one's dog, almost everyone may agree that things would be better if there was a norm in favor of cleaning up.
“In the case of cleaning up after one's dog, almost everyone may agree that things would be better if there was a norm in favor of cleaning up.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]An implicit (but undefended and obscure) state of nature theory seems to lie at the heart of many distinctions between social norms and rationality, or between social norms and rational self-interest.
“An implicit (but undefended and obscure) state of nature theory seems to lie at the heart of many distinctions between social norms and rationality, or between social norms and rational self-interest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Levels and InstitutionsNorms can often undermine human well-being.
“We have seen that this term is highly ambiguous and that norms can often undermine human well-being.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. ToolsSome economic incentives can be understood as efforts in part to counteract social meanings, social norms, or social roles with financial benefits or penalties designed to produce a good equilibrium.
“We can understand some economic incentives as efforts in part to counteract social meanings, social norms, or social roles with financial benefits or penalties designed to produce a good “equilibrium.””
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Norms and PaternalismReligious groups are norm entrepreneurs; the same is true for environmental and civil rights organizations.
“Religious groups are in this sense norm entrepreneurs; the same is true for environmental and civil rights organizations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903Such a change may be supported by the reflective judgments of all or most people.
“The key point is that such a change may be supported by the reflective judgments of all or most people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]Conflicts between antidiscrimination principles and religious liberty have everything to do with perceived limits on governmental ability to change norms, meanings, and roles in subgroups that deny autonomy.
“In fact conflicts between antidiscrimination principles and religious liberty have everything to do with perceived limits on governmental ability to change norms, meanings, and roles in subgroups that deny autonomy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 2.What is rational and what is in an agent's self-interest are functions of social norms.
“At first glance it appears that there is no sharp dichotomy between rationality and social norms or between self-interest and social norms; taking the words in their ordinary sense, what is rational and what is in an agent's self-interest are functions of social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 196.In the context of norms, the ordinary understandings face a serious conceptual problem.
“A possible conclusion of what I have said thus far is that in the context of norms, the ordinary understandings face a serious conceptual problem.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]People may have adopted prevailing norms rationally in view of limits in existing opportunities, as when norms discourage schooling for people whose prospects are poor; but such norms are nonetheless an obstacle to autonomy.
“People may have adopted prevailing norms rationally in view of limits in existing opportunities, as when norms discourage schooling for people whose prospects are poor; 2 23 but such norms are nonetheless an obstacle to autonomy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 196.It is plausible that it is much more efficient to create a norm in favor of cleaning up than to create a norm making people approve of clutter and mess.
“It is plausible, for example, to think that it is much more efficient to create a norm in favor of cleaning up than to create a norm making people approve of clutter and mess.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ D. CasteThe social meaning of particular choices by women may diverge sharply from similar choices from men.
“So, too, for the social meaning of particular choices by women, which may diverge sharply from similar choices from men”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Some Unusual Collective Action ProblemsSocial norms may provide conventions on which everyone voluntarily settles; table manners are examples.
“They may provide conventions on which everyone voluntarily settles; table manners are examples.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ D. CasteIn American law, problems of discrimination typically raise issues of caste.
“In American law, problems of discrimination typically raise issues of caste.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ 196.On the Coasian view, we might ask which norms can be changed most cheaply.
“On the Coasian view, we might ask which norms can be changed most cheaply.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903Such laws readjust the personal calculation, making what is rational, and what is in one's self-interest, different from what they were before.
“They readjust the personal calculation, making what is rational, and what is in one's self-interest, different from what they were before.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 196.The traditional account focuses on one norm, but the problem is a product of a wide range of them.
“The traditional account focuses on one norm, but the problem is a product of a wide range of them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903Some collective judgments might be wrong, productive of inefficiency, invasive of rights, or confused.
“Of course some collective judgments might be wrong, productive of inefficiency, invasive of rights, or confused.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Some Unusual Collective Action ProblemsUnder ordinary assumptions, each person may well litter if the costs of throwing things in the garbage are wholly internalized, whereas the benefits of doing so are spread across a wide range of people.
“Under ordinary assumptions, each person may well litter-if the costs of throwing things in the garbage are wholly internalized, whereas the benefits of doing so are spread across a wide range of people.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Legal responses.Effective responses promote efficiency and simultaneously enhance a form of freedom by producing outcomes that citizens reflectively judge best but cannot obtain on their own.
“Effective responses promote efficiency 20 6 and simultaneously enhance a form of freedom by producing outcomes that citizens reflectively judge best but cannot obtain on their own.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 196.On such an approach, a collective action problem exists because if reasonable agents could agree on the norm in question, things would be better rather than worse.
“On such an approach, a collective action problem exists because if reasonable agents could agree on the norm in question, things would be better rather than worse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 196.The traditional account takes a set of norms as given, without seeing that they themselves might be altered, rather than altering the particular norm that has been put into question.
“The traditional account takes a set of norms as given, without seeing that they themselves might be altered, rather than altering the particular norm that has been put into question.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteStatuses are an occasional target of law.
“Thus statuses are an occasional target of law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Social norms can undermine the liberal project, and government might try to alter them in order to promote autonomy.
“In either case, social norms can undermine the liberal project, and government might try to alter them in order to promote autonomy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903People may actually reject existing norms but fail to state their opposition publicly, and once public opposition becomes less costly, new norms may rapidly come into place.
“People may actually reject existing norms but fail to state their opposition publicly, and once public opposition becomes less costly, new norms may rapidly come into place.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 3. Legal responses.Laws designed to ensure that everyone picks up after their dog, that people do not litter, and that people do not smoke in certain places are rarely if ever enforced through criminal prosecutions.
“There are laws designed to ensure that everyone picks up after their dog; that people do not litter; that people do not smoke in certain places.These laws are rarely if ever enforced through criminal prosecutions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 196.When a situation is supposed to create a prisoner's dilemma that would be satisfied by some norm Z, the situation presupposes a range of norms A through Y which are being held constant and not being put in contention.
“When a situation is supposed to create a prisoner's dilemma that would be satisfied by some norm Z, the situation presupposes a range of norms A through Y which are being held constant and not being put in contention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and ConsumersIn their private capacity, people may watch silly situation comedies; but they may also support, as citizens, the use of government resources to assist public broadcasting.
“In their private capacity, people may watch silly situation comedies; but they may also support, as citizens, the use of government resources to assist public broadcasting.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]In such cases autonomy cannot easily exist without collective assistance; people are able to produce the norms, meanings, and roles that they reflectively endorse only with governmental involvement.
“In such cases autonomy cannot easily 220 exist without collective assistance; people are able to produce the norms, meanings, and roles that they reflectively endorse only with governmental involvement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteSocial norms, social meanings, and social roles bear very much on problems of discrimination.
“Social norms, social meanings, and social roles bear very much on problems of discrimination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteAn important and disastrous feature of this situation is the signalling effect of the characteristic that is shared by lower caste members.
“An important and disastrous feature of this situation is the signalling effect of the characteristic that is shared by lower caste members.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 196.It is not clear that this way of seeing things can coexist with ordinary understandings of collective action problems, which are rooted in subjective desires.
“It is not clear, however, that this way of seeing things can coexist with ordinary understandings of collective action problems, which are rooted in subjective desires.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteThat characteristic promotes a certain social role for caste members, since it is associated with a range of undesirable or otherwise stigmatizing traits.
“That characteristic promotes a certain social role for caste members, since it is associated with a range of undesirable or otherwise stigmatizing traits.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and ConsumersPolitical decisions might also vindicate metapreferences or second-order preferences.
“Political decisions might also vindicate metapreferences or second-order preferences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 3. Legal responses.A well-functioning society needs many norms that make it rational for people, acting in their self-interest, to avoid collective action problems.
“A well-functioning society needs many norms that make it rational for people, acting in their self-interest, to avoid collective action problems.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2.If a social norm that everyone should pick up litter is in place, people who act in their rational self-interest will not litter.
“If the norm is in place, people who act in their rational self-interest will not litter.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ B. Citizens and ConsumersSome people seek stringent laws protecting the environment or endangered species even though they do not use the public parks or derive material benefits from protection of endangered species-and even though in their private behavior, they are unwilling to do much to protect environmental amenities.
“Some people seek stringent laws protecting the environment or endangered species even though they do not use the public parks or derive material benefits from protection of endangered species-and even though in their private behavior, they are unwilling to do much to protect environmental amenities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisecitation§ A. Some Unusual Collective Action ProblemsSocial norms do the work of law.
“They do the work of law.193”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [193]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ D. CasteThe social meaning of being female may bear on a range of choices at home and in the workforce.
“The social meaning of being female, for example, may bear on a range of choices at home and in the workforce.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2.With a mandatory seat belt law, there will be people who dislike wearing seat belts and resent the coercion, no matter the number of people who wear them.
“With a mandatory seat belt law, for example, there will be people who dislike wearing seat belts and resent the coercion, no matter the number of people who wear them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Risk, Autonomy, and Well-BeingOutside of the domain of autonomy, there are obstacles to well-being in norms that encourage people to take high risks simply because the failure to do so signals-in light of those norms-cowardice or worse.
“Outside of the domain of autonomy, we might think that there are obstacles to well-being in norms that encourage people to take high risks simply because the failure to do so signals-in light of those normscowardice or worse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ B. Citizens and ConsumersBecause of the governing norms, citizens may seek to implement individual and collective aspirations in political behavior but not in private consumption.
“Because of the governing norms, citizens may seek to implement individual and collective aspirations in political behavior but not in private consumption.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone given§ 3. Legal responses.When such problems exist, it is because of the social norms that make rational self-interest take a certain form.
“When such problems exist, it is because of the social norms that make rational self-interest take a certain form-in favor, for example, of refusing to clean up or otherwise failing to contribute to shared projects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 2.What is rational, and what promotes self-interest, depends on many exogenous factors, including existing norms.
“What is rational, and what promotes self-interest, depends on many exogenous factors, including existing norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and ConsumersThe mere existence of certain environmental goods seems to be highly valued by political participants, even if they are not willing to back up the valuation with dollars in private markets.
“The mere existence of certain environmental goods seems to be highly valued by political participants, even if they are not willing to back up the valuation with dollars in private markets.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and ConsumersPeople may, in their capacity as political actors, attempt to promote altruistic or other-regarding goals, which diverge from the self-interested preferences sometimes characteristic of markets.
“People may, in their capacity as political actors, attempt to promote altruistic or other-regarding goals, which diverge from the self-interested preferences sometimes characteristic of markets.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ A. Some Unusual Collective Action ProblemsThe absence of such norms makes some existing practices highly inefficient.
“And the absence of such norms makes some existing practices highly inefficient.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ C. Risk, Autonomy, and Well-BeingIn some communities, a good deal of education may be inconsistent with prevailing social norms.
“People may believe, on reflection, that the act of being well-educated should not be a source of shame; but in some communities, a good deal of education may be inconsistent with prevailing social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteLaw might attempt to overcome a collective action problem faced by victims of discrimination in changing prevailing norms, meanings, and roles.
“In particular, law might attempt to overcome a collective action problem faced by victims of discrimination in changing prevailing norms, meanings, and roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]These conflicts are generally resolved in favor of the latter, especially in the area of sex equality.
“These conflicts are generally resolved in favor of the latter, especially in the area of sex equality.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903The relevant laws help to inculcate both shame and pride; they help define the appropriate sources of these things.
“The relevant laws help to inculcate both shame and pride; they help define the appropriate sources of these things.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: People have to be brought up to have a sense of shame, and to have a certain understanding of what sorts of things call for shame.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteOften an attack on a caste system amounts to an attack on that social role and its associated social norms-especially as a result of behavioral norms shared, or thought to be shared, by members of the lower caste.
“Often an attack on a caste system amounts to an attack on that social role and its associated social norms-especially as a result of behavioral norms shared, or thought to be shared, by members of the lower caste.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ D. CasteA status is a particular kind of role; statuses are imposed rather than chosen.
“We have seen that a status is a particular kind of role; statuses are imposed rather than chosen.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Risk, Autonomy, and Well-BeingNorms that encourage people to carry guns, use dangerous drugs, drive well over the speed limit, engage in unsafe sex, and so forth may have potentially pernicious effects on people's lives.
“If so, norms that encourage people to carry guns, use dangerous drugs, drive well over the speed limit, engage in unsafe sex, and so forth may properly be an object of governmental attack, because of their potentially pernicious effects on people's lives.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 196.On an objective account of human needs and human interests, we should create a norm against littering, rather than a norm in favor of clutter and mess, because lives are objectively better with the first norm than with the second.
“On this view, we should create a norm against littering, rather than a norm in favor of clutter and mess, because lives are objectively better with the first norm than with the second.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ B. Citizens and ConsumersAs citizens, people may seek the aid of the law to bring about a social state that they consider to be higher than what emerges from market ordering.
“As citizens, people may seek the aid of the law to bring about a social state that they consider to be higher than what emerges from market ordering.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ C. Risk, Autonomy, and Well-BeingNorms can compromise autonomy itself, by stigmatizing it.
“Above all this is because norms can compromise autonomy itself, by stigmatizing it.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ A. Some Unusual Collective Action ProblemsSocial norms may solve prisoner's dilemmas through social sanctions imposed on deviants; this is true of the idea that people should clean up after their dogs.
“Or they may solve prisoner's dilemmas through social sanctions imposed on deviants; this is true of the idea that people should clean up after their dogs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Many efforts to change norms would impair autonomy rather than promote it.
“Many efforts to change norms would impair autonomy rather than promote it.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONThere is a problem with existing norms when all or almost all people would seek a change.
“Certainly there is a problem with existing norms when all or almost all people would seek a change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSIONThe result can be severe limits on human well-being and autonomy.
“The result can be severe limits on human well-being and autonomy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903On any sound view of liberalism, there is no general basis, in principle, for objection to proposals of the sort I have suggested.
“What is important for present purposes is that on any sound view of liberalism, there is no general basis, in principle, for objection to proposals of the sort I have suggested.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteFor lower caste members, the problem is that the shared characteristic carries with it a meaning-stupidity, passivity, venality-that cannot be controlled by individual agents.
“For lower caste members, the problem is that the shared characteristic carries with it a meaning-stupidity, passivity, venality-that cannot be controlled by individual agents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONMany claims about the appropriate limits of law are insufficiently appreciative of the pervasive effects of social norms, social meanings, and social roles.
“Many claims about the appropriate limits of law are insufficiently appreciative of the pervasive effects of social norms, social meanings, and social roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisereasoning§ E. The Expressive Function of LawLaws with expressive functions are often designed to promote a certain way of valuing certain goods.
“Laws with expressive functions are often designed to promote a certain way of valuing certain goods.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ E. The Expressive Function of LawA ban on vote-selling can be understood as an effort to make a statement about the pricelessness of the right to vote.
“A ban on vote-selling can be viewed similarly.We might understand such a law as an effort to make a certain statement about the pricelessness-not”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSIONChoices are very much a function of context, including governing norms, meanings, and roles.
“If the term is meant to refer to “choices,” it should be understood that choices are very much a function of context, including governing norms, meanings, and roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Premisenone given§ E. The Expressive Function of LawMany laws have an expressive function; they make a statement about how much, and how, a good or bad should be valued.
“Many laws have an expressive function.They “make a statement” about how much, and how, a good or bad should be valued.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ CONCLUSIONThe effects of social norms, social meanings, and social roles have yet to receive much attention.
“In fact these effects have yet to receive much attention.239”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [239]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONThere may well be a problem when reputational incentives lead people to do what they would otherwise refuse to do, at least if the relevant norms deny people the preconditions for autonomy or otherwise undermine well-being.
“There may well be a problem when reputational incentives lead people to do what they would otherwise refuse to do, at least if the relevant norms deny people the preconditions for autonomy or otherwise undermine well-being.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONIf "preferences" refers to the motivational and mental states behind choices, those mental states include assessments of social norms, the expressive meaning of acts, and the expectations associated with social roles.
“If the term “preferences” is meant to refer not to choices but to the motivational and mental states behind choices, it is important to recognize that those mental states include assessments of social norms, the expressive meaning of acts, and the expectations associated with a dazzling variety of social roles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisereasoning§ 1996]Rights operate as constraints on norm management as on everything else that government does.
“Rights operate as constraints on norm management as on everything else that government does.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSION"Norm entrepreneurs" can help solve collective action problems, and "norm bandwagons" and cascades are common.
“Hence “norm entrepreneurs” can help solve collective action problems, and hence “norm bandwagons” and cascades are common.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSIONThe impact of law on human behavior is an important matter for lawmakers to understand, and that impact has everything to do with social norms.
“But-to say the least-the impact of law on human behavior is an important matter for lawmakers to understand, and that impact has everything to do with social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]A particular reason for legal intervention is to overcome the obstacles to autonomy produced by a system of caste, obstacles that cannot be overcome by individual agents.
“Thus we have a particular reason for legal intervention: to overcome the obstacles to autonomy produced by a system of caste, obstacles that cannot be overcome by individual agents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: A caste system tends to deny autonomy to lower caste members.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Interpretationreasoning§ CONCLUSIONAn understanding of norms will help illuminate effective regulatory policy.
“An understanding of norms will therefore help illuminate effective regulatory policy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ 1996]A liberal society limits the permissible bases for governmental action.
“A liberal society limits the permissible bases for governmental action.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [235]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationreasoning§ E. The Expressive Function of LawA ban on the sale of children is designed to say that children should be valued in a way that forbids the acceptance of cash as a reason for taking them out of parental care.
“A ban on the sale of children is designed (among other things) to say that children should be valued in a way that forbids the acceptance of cash as a reason for taking them out of parental care.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONWhile social life would be impossible without norms, meanings, and roles, individual people have little control over these things.
“While social life would be impossible without norms, meanings, and roles, individual people have little control over these things.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 1996]For lower caste members, a wide range of "choices" might emerge from the underlying social norms.
“For lower caste members, a wide range of “choices” might emerge from the underlying social norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteThey might be designed to encourage people to be self-conscious about registering the preexisting signal.
“They might be designed to encourage people to be self-conscious about registering the preexisting signal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONNorms can be far more fragile than they appear.
“We have also seen that norms can be far more fragile than they appear.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ [Vol. 96:903The constraints imposed by political liberalism impose no bans on those changes.
“The constraints imposed by political liberalism impose no bans on those changes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
Premisereasoning§ 1996]It is unacceptable to base government action on grounds that deny the basic equality of human beings.
“It would be equally unacceptable to base government action on grounds that deny the basic equality of human beings-as in efforts to encourage norms that treat members of racial minorities as second-class citizens.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONPeople need collective help if they want to change norms, meanings, or roles.
“People need collective help if they want to change norms, meanings, or roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ 231.Government interference with norms, roles, or meanings might compound a collective action problem, aid well-organized private groups promoting unjust goals, or aggravate a caste-like situation.
“It is also true that government interference with norms, roles, or meanings might compound a collective action problem, aid well-organized private groups promoting unjust goals, or aggravate a caste-like situation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONSometimes law interacts with the efforts of norm entrepreneurs, facilitating or blunting their efforts, and sometimes law ratifies or accelerates-or halts-norm bandwagons and cascades.
“Sometimes law interacts with the efforts of norm entrepreneurs, facilitating or blunting their efforts, and sometimes law ratifies or acceleratesor halts-norm bandwagons and cascades.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Premisenone given§ CONCLUSIONLives are shortened and unjustified inequalities are perpetuated by the existence of many current norms.
“In fact lives are shortened and unjustified inequalities are perpetuated by the existence of many current norms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ CONCLUSIONMany of the most severe problems in current societies are a product of unfortunate norms, meanings, and roles.
“Many of the most severe problems in current societies are a product of unfortunate norms, meanings, and roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ [Vol. 96:903Social roles and social meanings may undermine the equality and liberty of citizens and changes require collective action.
“Political liberals ought to acknowledge, for example, that social roles and social meanings may undermine the equality and liberty of citizens and that changes require collective action.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ 231.The "just say no" campaign with respect to drug use probably falls in the category of government action likely to be futile or counterproductive.
“The “just say no” campaign with respect to drug use probably falls in this category.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ CONCLUSIONMany of the most dramatic gains in health and safety policy are a product of changes in norms, meanings, and roles.
“Many of the most dramatic gains in health and safety policy are a product of changes in norms, meanings, and roles.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONCollective help may be futile or counterproductive; it may be illegitimately motivated.
“Collective help may be futile or counterproductive; it may be illegitimately motivated.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 1996]Women who believe the social meaning of being a woman is bad for them face a collective action problem that may be solved best via law.
“These women face a collective action problem that may be solved best via law.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Many women believe on reflection that the social meaning of being a woman is bad for them and that it should be changed.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ 231.If private choices are a function of roles, norms, and meanings over which private people have no sovereignty, many imaginable initiatives are consistent with individual autonomy, rightly conceived.
“If private choices are a function of roles, norms, and meanings over which private people have no sovereignty, many imaginable initiatives are consistent with individual autonomy, rightly conceived.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone given§ CONCLUSIONThese matters require an inquiry into the particular context.
“But these matters require an inquiry into the particular context.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationreasoning§ D. CasteLaws forbidding discrimination might well have, as one of their purposes and effects, a change in the signalling effect of the relevant characteristic.
“Laws forbidding discrimination might well have, as one of their purposes and effects, a change in the signalling effect of the relevant characteristic.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Premisenone given§ 1996]At least in the American constitutional system, it is unacceptable for government to attempt to legislate on the ground that the divinity of Jesus Christ requires a certain state of affairs.
“At least in the American constitutional system, for example, it is unacceptable for government to attempt to legislate on the ground that the divinity of Jesus Christ requires a certain state of affairs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
For present purposes, differences among possible definitions of social norms are not important, and conventional understandings are adequate.
“For present purposes the differences among the possible definitions are not very important, and we can rely on conventional understandings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People may not have much allegiance to social norms.
“people may not have much allegiance.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People's private judgments and desires diverge greatly from public appearances.
“People's private judgments and desires diverge greatly from public appearances.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Government cannot avoid affecting social norms.
“which cannot avoid affecting social norms.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The social meaning of condom use is a confession, an accusation, or a statement that one is not spontaneous.
“Suppose that the social meaning of condom use is a confession, an accusation, 94 or a statement,”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The social meaning of a male teenager's refusal to fight when insulted is that he is cowardly.
“Suppose that the social meaning of a male teenager's refusal to fight when insulted is,”
The paper relies on this without support.
Under apartheid in South Africa, public criticism of apartheid much understated private opposition to apartheid.
“Under the apartheid regime in South Africa, public criticism of apartheid-at least within South Africa-much understated private opposition to apartheid.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People usually do not want to feel shame.
“People usually do not want to feel shame”
The paper relies on this without support.
People usually do not choose norms, meanings, and roles; all of these are (within limits) imposed.
“Recall that people usually do not choose norms, meanings, and roles; all of these are (within limits) imposed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Norms, meanings, and roles make life possible and much facilitate social engagement.
“They make life possible and they much facilitate social engagement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The relation between behavior and norms has yet to receive sustained attention.
“The relation between behavior and norms has yet to receive sustained attention”
The paper relies on this without support.
Changes in norms may be the cheapest and most effective way to make things better.
“In fact changes in norms may be the cheapest and most effective way to make things better, whatever are our criteria for assessing that matter.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is a general norm in favor of obeying the law.
“norm in favor of obeying the law.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People have to be brought up to have a sense of shame, and to have a certain understanding of what sorts of things call for shame.
“Of course people have to be brought up to have a sense of shame, and to have a certain understanding of what sorts of things call for shame”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many women believe on reflection that the social meaning of being a woman is bad for them and that it should be changed.
“But many women believe on reflection that the social meaning of being a woman is bad for them and that it should be changed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A caste system tends to deny autonomy to lower caste members.
“In any case a caste system tends to deny autonomy to lower caste members.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The social role of “being a woman” is associated with a wide range of social norms and social meanings.
“The social role of “being a woman” is associated with a wide range of social norms and social meanings.”
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Del‐Real, C., Busser, E. D., & van den Berg, B. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4477388 · Cited by 1
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Aspara, J., Chakravarti, A., & Hoffmann, A. O. I. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2060289
The Latin American and Caribbean Journal of Legal Studies
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Azevedo, L. A. N. D. M. (2016) · doi:10.11606/t.2.2016.tde-17122015-104939
Parau, C. E. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal
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Bogart, W. A. (2009) · Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice · doi:10.22329/wyaj.v27i2.4557
Newfeld, D. (2017) · Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies · doi:10.22610/jebs.v9i2(j).1653
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Smyth, L. (2018) · Policy Press eBooks · doi:10.1332/policypress/9781447338499.003.0004
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Metadata
- Authors
- Sunstein, C. R.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sunstein, Cass R
- ORCID
- Sunstein, Cass R
- Venue
- Free Markets and Social Justice
- Publisher
- Oxford University PressNew York, NY
- Published
- 1997-02-06
- Pages
- 32-69
- OpenAlex
- W1848653928
- Cited by
- 175
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2024: 4 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 17.85
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- public-domain
- Locations
- bepress Legal Repository (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- bepress Legal Repository (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Theory and Institutions
- Keywords
- ultimatum game, social norms, social roles, fairness, rationality assumption, self-interest, bargaining, experimental economics
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