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PROPORTION OF DISEASE CAUSED OR PREVENTED BY A GIVEN EXPOSURE, TRAIT OR INTERVENTION1
Abstract
The structures of two epidemiologic parameters are explored. One, the “etiologic fraction, ” relates to markers of increased risk, and it is the proportion of disease attributable to the marker and/or to factors associated with it. The other, the “prevented fraction, ” is the equivalent of this for a marker of reduced risk. It is shown that both parameters depend—in different ways—-on the frequency of the marker among cases of the disease, and on the “standardized morbidity ratio” for those with the marker. Point estimation of these parameters is often straight-forward, particularly in case-control studies.
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“ETT has been used in econometrics to evaluate the effectiveness of social programs on their participants (Heckman, 1992) and has long been the target of research in epidemiology, where it came to be known as 'the effect of exposure on the exposed,' or 'standardized morbidity' (Miettinen, 1974; Greenland and Robins, 1986).”
From Causal inference in statistics: An overview (2009) · cites this paper as Miettinen, 1974
In the citing paper
“Population-attributable fractions, adjusted for aforementioned model covariates, were calculated using Miettinen’s formula, aPRs, and weighted prevalence estimates of each health condition and risk behavior by each cumulative ACEs count level”
From Adverse childhood experiences and health conditions and risk behaviors among high school students—Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2023 (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
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Eide, G. E., & Heuch, I. (2006) · Biometrical Journal · doi:10.1002/bimj.200510228 · Cited by 27
“…a Population There is a well-known relationship between the attributable fraction in exposed ðlEÞ and the attributable fraction in a population ðlÞ from Miettinen (1974), namely l ¼ lEPðE j DÞ : ð18Þ Now, as before, suppose there are L risk factors generating K þ 1 disjoint exposure classes ðk ¼…”
Epidemiology of vaginal adenosis and adenocarcinoma associated with exposure to stilbestrolin utero
Poskanzer, D. C., & Herbst, A. L. (1977) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/1097-0142(197704)39:4+ · Cited by 26
Petersen, G. M., Scott, E. M., Rotter, J. I., et al. (1985) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(85)92738-2 · Cited by 27
Periodontal Disease and Smoking: Systematic Review
Alwithanani, N. A. (2023) · Journal of Pharmacy And Bioallied Sciences · doi:10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_516_22 · Cited by 35
Kotaki, Y., Tomata, Y., Tanji, F., Zhang, S., Sugawara, Y., & Tsuji, I. (2019) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09252-w · Cited by 26
Masinaei, M., Eshrati, B., & Yaseri, M. (2019) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.113432 · Cited by 26
Nielsen, S. L., & Vilmar, J. W. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114091 · Cited by 26
Precarious Work as Risk Factor for 5-Year Increase in Depressive Symptoms
Demıral, Y., Ihle, T., Rose, U., Conway, P. M., & Burr, H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19063175 · Cited by 27
Association Between Geospatial Access to Care and Firearm Injury Mortality in Philadelphia
Byrne, J. P., Kaufman, E. J., Scantling, D. R., Tam, V. W., Martin, N. D., Raza, S. S., Cannon, J. W., Schwab, C. W., Reilly, P. M., & Seamon, M. J. (2022) · JAMA Surgery · doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2022.3677 · Cited by 27
“Serious” Mental Retardation in Developing Countries: An Epidemiologic Approach
STEIN, Z. A., Durkin, M. S., & Belmont, L. (1986) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1986.tb40316.x · Cited by 26
Nada‐Raja, S., & Skegg, K. (2011) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260511403757 · Cited by 26
“Population attributable risk percentages (PAR) were calculated for each of the significant predictors identified in the final multivariate models to determine the proportion of selfharm that could be prevented if any one of the identified predictors were totally eliminated (Miettinen, 1974).”
Backgroundvon Cube, M., Timsit, J., Schumacher, M., Motschall, E., & Schumacher, M. C. (2020) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30485-0 · Cited by 26
Mutapi, F., Pfavayi, L., Osakunor, D., Lim, R., Kasambala, M., Mutemeri, A., Rusakaniko, S., Chibanda, D., & Mduluza, T. (2021) · PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0009660 · Cited by 25
“schistosomeinfected/stunted/malnourished children) respectively, according to Miettinen’s formula [22].”
Risk of cardiovascular disease after radiotherapy in survivors of breast cancer: A case-cohort study
Hamood, R., Hamood, H., Merhasin, I., & Keinan‐Boker, L. (2018) · Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jjcc.2018.10.009 · Cited by 27
Attributable fraction for multiple risk factors: Methods, interpretations, and examples
Maso, M. D., Bravi, F., Polesel, J., Negri, E., Decarli, A., Serraino, D., Vecchia, C. L., & Ferraroni, M. (2019) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/0962280219848471 · Cited by 26
“Eide and Heuch(12) extended sequential and average AF principle to subpopulations of multiexposed subjects, according to the relationship between AF and AF in exposed.(3) Furthermore, they gave a general methodology for visualizing AF in multifactorial settings.”
BackgroundMethodUnderstanding the interaction between cytomegalovirus and tuberculosis in children: The way forward
Olbrich, L., Stockdale, L. K., Roy, R. B., Song, R., Čičin‐Šain, L., Whittaker, E., Prendergast, A. J., Fletcher, H. A., & Seddon, J. A. (2021) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1010061 · Cited by 31
Etiologic study vis-à-vis intervention study
Miettinen, O. S. (2010) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-010-9486-9 · Cited by 25
“translated into their corresponding etiologic/etiogenetic fractions/proportions, whether conditional on the antecedent’s presence or without this restriction [8].”
BackgroundSelf-citationLabour productivity losses caused by premature death associated with hepatitis C in Spain
Oliva, J., Peña-Longobardo, L. M., Alonso, S., et al. (2015) · European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1097/meg.0000000000000336 · Cited by 25
Asthma and risk of non-respiratory tract infection: a population-based case–control study
Bang, D. W., Yang, H. J., Ryoo, E., Al‐Hasan, M. N., Lahr, B. D., Baddour, L. M., Yawn, B. P., & Juhn, Y. J. (2013) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003857 · Cited by 25
“%) of asthma for community-acquired E coli BSI using the formula established by Miettinen.”
MethodGeneral practitioners and occupational health professionals
Beach, J. R., & Watt, D. (2003) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7410.302 · Cited by 25
Bråbäck, L., Björ, O., & Nordahl, G. (2003) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2003.tb00464.x · Cited by 25
“The marginal (or crude) attributable fractions of maternal smoking and other determinants for hospitalization were estimated according to Miettinen (14).”
MethodThe population risk of fractures attributable to oral corticosteroids
Donnan, P. T., Libby, G., Boyter, A. C., & Thompson, P. E. (2005) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.1075 · Cited by 26
Naz, S., Page, A., & Agho, K. (2018) · Global Health Research and Policy · doi:10.1186/s41256-018-0059-x · Cited by 25
“A joint PAF across four South Asian countries was also calculated by using the following formula [48, 49],”
MethodConway, P. M., Burr, H., Rose, U., Clausen, T., & Balducci, C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182010805 · Cited by 25
“an adverse work environment was computed based on the obtained odds ratios and the prevalence of the three categories of the “adverse work environment” index, according to the method developed by Miettinen [49] and Rothman [50].”
MethodWu, T., Chen, C., Lai, S.-K., et al. (2014) · Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology · doi:10.1111/jgh.12845 · Cited by 24
Chang, T., Liu, P., Liang, Y.-C., Chang, Y., Jiang, Y., Li, H., Lo, M.-T., Chen, H.-S., & Chuang, L. (2011) · Pharmacogenetics and Genomics · doi:10.1097/fpc.0b013e32834bfff1 · Cited by 24
Heart failure in immigrant groups: a cohort study of adults aged 45 years and over in Sweden
Wändell, P. E., Carlsson, A. C., Li, X., Gašević, D., Ärnlöv, J., Holzmann, M. J., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2018) · Scandinavian Cardiovascular Journal · doi:10.1080/14017431.2018.1546892 · Cited by 24
“cent for risk factors, as prevalence (%) among cases multiplied by HR-1/HR [18], using adjusted HRs for the different factors.”
MethodInfluentialLewis, M. (1999) · Human Reproduction Update · doi:10.1093/humupd/5.6.707 · Cited by 24
Population Attributable Risk for Occupational Gancer in Italy
Barone‐Adesi, F., Richiardi, L., & Merletti, F. (2005) · International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1179/oeh.2005.11.1.23 · Cited by 24
The burden of cardiovascular disease in Australia for the year 2003
Begg, S. J., & Vos, T. (2006) · Cited by 24
Hospital admissions for somatic care among young men: the role of alcohol
Andréasson, S., Allebeck, P., & Romelsjö, A. (1990) · British Journal of Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1990.tb03724.x · Cited by 23
Determining Genetic Component of a Disease
Ashley‐Koch, A. E. (2005) · doi:10.1002/9780471781141.ch3 · Cited by 24
Lee, S., Moon, S., Kim, K., Sung, S., Hong, Y., Lim, W., & Park, S. K. (2024) · Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.3961/jpmph.24.272 · Cited by 23
“…the PAF is obtained by transforming the PAF using the exponential function and the standard normal quantile ( ± 1.96), adjusted for the , as shown below: In a Monte Carlo simulation, 10 000 random samples are generated for both RR and Pe based on the 4 primary parame - ters: , Pe, RR, and Tp [14].”
MethodInfluentialGwynn, R. C., Fawzy, A., Viho, I., Wu, Y., Abrams, E. J., & Nash, D. (2015) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-015-0898-9 · Cited by 23
“Among women, we estimated the attributable fraction (AF) [19] and 95 % CIs of LTF associated with pregnancy and not having adult household member enrolled in the HIV clinic using the formula AF = PE*(AHR-1)/[PE*(AHR-1) + 1] where AHR is the adjusted hazard ratio for the exposure of interest, and PE is the proportion o…”
MethodManna, K., & Natarajan, S. (2022) · Inorganic Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.2c03679 · Cited by 23
Ekström, M. P., Sundh, J., Andersson, A., Angerås, O., Blomberg, A., Börjesson, M., Caidahl, K., Emilsson, Ö. I., Engvall, J. E., Frykholm, E., et al. (2024) · Respiratory Research · doi:10.1186/s12931-024-02766-6 · Cited by 23
Fracción atribuible poblacional: cálculo e interpretación
Llorca, J., Fariñas-Álvarez, C., & Delgado‐Rodríguez, M. (2001) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/s0213-9111(01)71519-1 · Cited by 24
“Buena 280 (8,9) 70 (6,4) 25,0 1 (ref) 1 (ref)”
Estimating the incidence of lung cancer attributable to occupational exposure in Iran
Mosavi-Jarrahi, A., Mohagheghi, M. A., Kalaghchi, B., Mousavi-Jarrahi, Y., & Noori, M. K. (2009) · Population Health Metrics · doi:10.1186/1478-7954-7-7 · Cited by 22
Ha, J., Kim, S. G., Paek, D., & Park, J. (2011) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.5491/shaw.2011.2.1.70 · Cited by 24
Tüchsen, F., Feveile, H., Christensen, K. B., et al. (2010) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-305 · Cited by 23
Peleteiro, B., Padrão, P., Castro, C., Ferro, A., Morais, S., & Lunet, N. (2016) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711451500522x · Cited by 23
“We used the method proposed by Miettinen((24)), which defines PF as follows: PF 1⁄4 P 1 RR ð Þ; where P is the prevalence of exposure to fruits or vegetables and RR is the relative risk of the association between fruit or vegetable intake and gastric cancer.”
Olsson, A. C., Gustavsson, P., Zaridze, D. G., Феликсовна, М. А., Szeszenia‐Dąbrowska, N., Rudnai, P., Lissowska, J., Fabiánová, E., Mateș, D., Bencko, V., et al. (2011) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e318234e2d2 · Cited by 24
Dagvadorj, A., Ota, E., Shahrook, S., Olkhanud, P. B., Takehara, K., Hikita, N., Bavuusuren, B., Mori, R., & Nakayama, T. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep24615 · Cited by 23
State-level diabetes-attributable mortality and years of life lost in the United States
Alva, M. L., Hoerger, T. J., Zhang, P., & Cheng, Y. J. (2018) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.08.015 · Cited by 24
Hoffmann, R., Kröger, H., Tarkiainen, L., & Martikainen, P. (2019) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-019-02078-z · Cited by 25
“Its calculation is based on hazard ratios for each risk category of an SEP variable, weighted by the relative size of the category (see formula below) (Miettinen 1974; Rockhill et al.”
MethodA new way to estimate the contribution of a risk factor in populations avoided nonadditivity
Llorca, J., & Delgado‐Rodríguez, M. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2003.10.003 · Cited by 22
Reefhuis, J., de Walle, H. E., & Cornel, M. C. (1998) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.88.10.1554 · Cited by 23
Prior Adverse Pregnancy Outcome and the Risk of Stillbirth
Rasmussen, S., Irgens, L. M., Skjærven, R., & Klungsøyr, K. (2009) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0b013e3181c22422 · Cited by 23
Interval Estimation of the Attributable Risk for Multiple Exposure Levels in Case-Control Studies
Denman, D. W., & Schlesselman, J. J. (1983) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2530818 · Cited by 23
Periodontal Diseases and Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review
Alwithanani, N. A. (2023) · Journal of Pharmacy And Bioallied Sciences · doi:10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_515_22 · Cited by 23
“[23,24]”
Comorbid physical health burden of serious mental health disorders in 32 European countries
Wienand, D., Wijnen, L. I., Heilig, D., Wippel, C., Arango, C., Knudsen, G. M., Goodwin, G. M., & Simon, J. (2024) · BMJ Mental Health · doi:10.1136/bmjment-2024-301021 · Cited by 23
“29 Additionally, we modelled scenarios of potential reductions of 5%, 10% and 50% in the excess PHC risk levels of MHDs and their resulting hypothetical population health impacts.”
MethodCancers Attributable to Infections in the US in 2017
Volesky, K. D., Morais, S., Walter, S. D., OʼBrien, T. R., Hildesheim, A., Engels, E. A., El‐Zein, M., & Franco, E. L. (2023) · JAMA Oncology · doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2023.4273 · Cited by 24
Nelson, L., Valle, J., King, G., Mills, P. K., Richardson, M. J., Roberts, E. M., Smith, D., & English, P. B. (2017) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2017.303690 · Cited by 22
Li, X., & Hemminki, K. (2003) · Oral Oncology · doi:10.1016/s1368-8375(02)00091-x · Cited by 22
“The population attributable proportion of cases with a family history of upper aerodigestive tract cancer was estimated as follows: proportion of familial cases (familial SIR-1)/familial SIR [17,18].”
BackgroundSample size and power based on the population attributable fraction.
Browner, W. S., & Newman, T. B. (1989) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.79.9.1289 · Cited by 22
Car restraints and seating position for prevention of motor vehicle injuries in Greece
Petridou, E. T., Skalkidou, A., Lescohier, I., et al. (1998) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.78.4.335 · Cited by 22
Merkel Cell Carcinoma and Immunosuppression, UV Radiation, and Merkel Cell Polyomavirus
Tribble, J. T., Pfeiffer, R. M., Brownell, I., et al. (2024) · JAMA Dermatology · doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2024.4607 · Cited by 21
Osei, G. K., Gorey, K. M., & Jozefowicz‐Simbeni, D. M. H. (2015) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-015-9315-0 · Cited by 21
“Studies were reanalyzed using the preventive fraction (PF) and Cohen’s U3 statistic, respectively, for discrete and continuous outcomes (Cohen 1988; Miettinen 1974).”
MethodLo, W., Ku, C.-C., Chiou, S.-T., Chan, C., Chen, C., Lai, M., & Lin, H.-H. (2017) · Population Health Metrics · doi:10.1186/s12963-017-0134-4 · Cited by 23
Freedman, B. I., Spray, B. J., Dunston, G. M., et al. (1994) · American Journal of Kidney Diseases · doi:10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80132-6 · Cited by 21
Prevention: an achievable goal in personalized medicine
Cuijpers, P. (2009) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2009.11.4/pcuijpers · Cited by 18
Rosen, L. (2013) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph10072932 · Cited by 20
“Most existing formulations of the AF [8,19,20] rely on the incidence of disease in the exposed and unexposed population, or on the relative risk of disease.”
BackgroundPalmer, K., Calnan, M., Wainwright, D. W., et al. (2006) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cml047 · Cited by 21
Important Role of Hepatitis C Virus Infection as a Cause of Chronic Liver Disease in Somalia
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Familial invasive and in situ squamous cell carcinoma of the skin
Hemminki, K., Zhang, H., & Czene, K. (2003) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6600909 · Cited by 21
Mortality from lung cancer in an acetylene and phthalic anhydride plant. A case-referent study.
Ríboli, E., Bai, E., Berrino, F., et al. (1983) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.2387 · Cited by 21
Epidemiologic studies of organic micropollutants in drinking water
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Statistical aspects of measuring the strength of associations between HLA antigens and diseases
Thomson, G. J., Motro, U., & Selvin, S. (1983) · Tissue Antigens · doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.1983.tb00178.x · Cited by 21
“A recent paper by Bengtsson & Thomson (1982) has shown that the epidemiological expression known as population attributable risk (MacMahon & Pugh 1970), or the etiological fraction (Miettinen 1974), can be given a genetic interpretation that allows it to be used to determine which of a number of human histocompatibili…”
Health Inequalities: Measurement and DecompositionPreprint
Harper, S. B., & Lynch, J. W. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2887311 · Cited by 23
Relationship of tobacco smoking to cause-specific mortality: contemporary estimates from Australia
Joshy, G., Kay, S., Thurber, K. A., Egger, S. J., Weber, M. F., Sarich, P., Welsh, J., Korda, R., Yazidjoglou, A., Nguyen, M. T. H., et al. (2025) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-025-03883-9 · Cited by 34
Lee, H., Lee, H., Townsend, R. R., Kim, D. W., Park, S., & Kim, H. C. (2022) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2022.02.040 · Cited by 23
Occupational exposure to Cr(VI) in Finland in 1980–2016 and related lung cancer risk assessment
Mahiout, S., Kiilunen, M. K., Vermeire, T. G., et al. (2022) · Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105276 · Cited by 20
Heidemann, C., Sarganas, G., Du, Y., et al. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16524-8 · Cited by 20
“PAR were derived by an equation postulated by Miettinen, taking the relative frequency of infections among participants with the respective health consequence and the respective odds ratio from the fully-adjusted model into consideration [25].”
MethodFerguson, J. P., Alvarez, A., Mulligan, M., Judge, C. S., & O'Donnell, M. J. (2024) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-023-01063-8 · Cited by 22
Role of aetiology, diabetes, tobacco smoking and hypertension in hepatocellular carcinoma survival
Raffetti, E., Portolani, N., Molfino, S., Baiocchi, G. L., Limina, R. M., Caccamo, G., Lamera, R., & Donato, F. (2015) · Digestive and Liver Disease · doi:10.1016/j.dld.2015.07.010 · Cited by 21
Weighing the Causal Pies in Case-Control Studies
Liao, S., & Lee, W. (2010) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2010.04.003 · Cited by 20
Tanamas, S. K., Permatahati, V., Ng, W. L., Backholer, K., Wolfe, R. S., Shaw, J. E., & Peeters, A. (2016) · BMC Obesity · doi:10.1186/s40608-016-0085-5 · Cited by 20
“Population attributable fraction estimates the proportion of disease that is attributable to a given risk factor, and thus represents the proportion of disease that theoretically would not have occurred had the risk factor not been present in the population [18].”
Attributable Fractions for Sufficient Cause Interactions
VanderWeele, T. J. (2010) · The International Journal of Biostatistics · doi:10.2202/1557-4679.1202 · Cited by 19
Morgenstern Corrects a Conceptual Error
Greenland, S., & Morgenstern, H. (1983) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.73.6.703-a · Cited by 20
Spina bifida and folate-related genes: A study of gene-gene interactions
de Franchis, R., Botto, L. D., Sebastio, G., et al. (2002) · Genetics in Medicine · doi:10.1097/00125817-200205000-00005 · Cited by 20
Physical Activity and Longevity of College Alumni
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Almasi‐Hashiani, A., Nedjat, S., Ghiasvand, R., Safiri, S., Nazemipour, M., Mansournia, N., & Mansournia, M. A. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11307-5 · Cited by 19
Contribution of causal factors to disease burden: how to interpret attributable fractions
Counil, É. (2021) · Breathe · doi:10.1183/20734735.0086-2021 · Cited by 19
Sadeghi, K., Poorolajal, J., & Doosti‐Irani, A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271511 · Cited by 19
“Third, because we do not know the prevalence of exposure among TB patients, we could not calculate the PAF based on the adjusted measures of associations such as adjusted RR, OR, and HR by applying the Miettinen formula [28].”
MethodDlamini, L. P., Amelia, V. L., Shongwe, M. C., Chang, P., & Chung, M. (2023) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2023.09.005 · Cited by 22
Population fraction of Parkinson’s disease attributable to preventable risk factors
Payami, H., Cohen, G., Murchison, C., Sampson, T. R., Standaert, D. G., & Wallen, Z. D. (2023) · npj Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.1038/s41531-023-00603-z · Cited by 21
Ahmed, K. Y., Thapa, S., Abate, K. H., et al. (2024) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102682 · Cited by 19
“29,30 Given the modi fi able risk factors occur simultaneously within individuals, aggregating the PAF for each speci fi c risk factor may lead to an overestimation of their combined effects.”
BackgroundMethodMorabia, A. (2015) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122403 · Cited by 20
Dementia in immigrant groups: A cohort study of all adults 45 years of age and older in Sweden
Wändell, P. E., Carlsson, A. C., Li, X., Gašević, D., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2019) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2019.03.003 · Cited by 19
Sirén, M., Viikari‐Juntura, E., Arokoski, J. P., et al. (2019) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2019-105974 · Cited by 19
Silva, O. L. D. O., Réa, M. F., Sarti, F. M., & Buccini, G. (2020) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980020001871 · Cited by 19
“The PF is defined as the proportion of morbidity and mortality cases avoided by exposure to protection factors and corresponds to the proportion of morbidity and mortality that would occur if there was no intervention conducted in the population(18,19), described by Miettinen(20) and used”
BackgroundLakhani, E., Nook, B. C., Haas, M., et al. (2009) · Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2009.08.004 · Cited by 19
“The primary analysis was responsiveness, evaluated as in Haas et al(6) with the etiologic fraction.(27) Etiologic fraction was computed as the percentage of EFI attributable to SMT: (% treatment group EFI − % control group EFI) / % treatment group EFI.”
Estimating the incidence of leukemia attributable to occupational exposure in Iran.
Mosavi-Jarrahi, A., Mohagheghi, M. A., Kalaghchi, B., Mousavi-Jarrahi, Y., Kolahi, A., & Noori, M. K. (2009) · PubMed · Cited by 19
Hemminki, K., & Bermejo, J. L. (2005) · Mutation research. Fundamental and molecular mechanisms of mutagenesis · doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2005.05.008 · Cited by 19
Screening for Low Prevalence Disorders
O’Toole, B. I. (2000) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/000486700221 · Cited by 19
Ahmed, K. Y., Dadi, A. F., Kibret, G. D., Bizuayehu, H. M., Abate, K. H., Amsalu, E. T., Ketema, D. B., Kassa, Z. Y., Bore, M. G., Alebel, A., et al. (2024) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102444 · Cited by 18
“29 PAF was calculated using the following formula: where Pc is the prevalence of the modi fi able risk factor among cases, and OR is the adjusted odds ratios of diarrhoea and ARI associated with the modi fi able risk factors.”
BackgroundMethodMughini‐Gras, L., Benincà, E., McDonald, S., de Jong, A., Chardon, J. E., Evers, E. G., & Marinović, A. A. B. (2022) · Zoonoses and Public Health · doi:10.1111/zph.12937 · Cited by 18
Smith, J. R., Sharrett, A. R., Pike, J. R., Gottesman, R. F., Knopman, D. S., Lee, M., Lutsey, P. L., Palta, P., Windham, B. G., Coresh, J., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12984 · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- MIETTINEN, O. S.
- Corresponding author
- MIETTINEN, OLLI S.
- Venue
- American Journal of Epidemiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1974-05
- Volume
- 99
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 325-332
- ISSN
- 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-6256
- OpenAlex
- W1953501928
- Cited by
- 1,036
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 7.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Historical and modern epidemiology studies
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Keywords
- population attributable fraction, prevented fraction, attributable fraction, risk indicators, standardized morbidity ratio, case-control study, disease prevention
- MeSH terms
- Coffee, Coronary Disease, Drinking, Epidemiologic Methods, Humans, Hypercholesterolemia, Hypertension, Models, Theoretical, Morbidity, Myocardial Infarction, Population, Preventive Medicine, Smoking, Statistics as Topic
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