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PROPORTION OF DISEASE CAUSED OR PREVENTED BY A GIVEN EXPOSURE, TRAIT OR INTERVENTION1
Abstract
The structures of two epidemiologic parameters are explored. One, the “etiologic fraction, ” relates to markers of increased risk, and it is the proportion of disease attributable to the marker and/or to factors associated with it. The other, the “prevented fraction, ” is the equivalent of this for a marker of reduced risk. It is shown that both parameters depend—in different ways—-on the frequency of the marker among cases of the disease, and on the “standardized morbidity ratio” for those with the marker. Point estimation of these parameters is often straight-forward, particularly in case-control studies.
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“ETT has been used in econometrics to evaluate the effectiveness of social programs on their participants (Heckman, 1992) and has long been the target of research in epidemiology, where it came to be known as 'the effect of exposure on the exposed,' or 'standardized morbidity' (Miettinen, 1974; Greenland and Robins, 1986).”
From Causal inference in statistics: An overview (2009) · cites this paper as Miettinen, 1974
In the citing paper
“Population-attributable fractions, adjusted for aforementioned model covariates, were calculated using Miettinen’s formula, aPRs, and weighted prevalence estimates of each health condition and risk behavior by each cumulative ACEs count level”
From Adverse childhood experiences and health conditions and risk behaviors among high school students—Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2023 (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
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Kim, E. K., Thorpe, L. E., Myers, J. E., & Nash, D. (2012) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.03.006 · Cited by 18
“The population attributable-fraction (AF%) and 95% CIs of receiving a recent HIV test for significantly associated health-care related correlates was estimated using the formula AF%=PE*(AOR−1)/[PE*(AOR−1)+1], where AOR is an estimate of the adjusted risk ratio for the exposure of interest, and PE is the proportion exp…”
MethodChen, Y. Q., Young, A., Brown, E. R., Chasela, C., Fiscus, S. A., Hoffman, I., Valentine, M., Emel, L., Taha, T. E., Goldenberg, R. L., et al. (2010) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0b013e3181d61c2e · Cited by 18
Relative Familial Clustering of Cerebral Versus Coronary Ischemic Events
Banerjee, A., Silver, L. E., Heneghan, C. J., Welch, S. J. V., Mehta, Z., BANNING, A. P., & Rothwell, P. M. (2011) · Circulation Cardiovascular Genetics · doi:10.1161/circgenetics.110.959114 · Cited by 19
Poor early childhood outcomes attributable to maternal depression in Mexican women
de Castro, F., Place, J. M., Villalobos, A., Rojas, R., Barrientos‐Gutiérrez, T., & Frongillo, E. A. (2017) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-017-0736-7 · Cited by 19
The burden of cancer attributable to modifiable risk factors in Canada: Methods overview
Brenner, D. R., Friedenreich, C. M., Ruan, Y., et al. (2019) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.007 · Cited by 18
Smidt, M. F.-D., Sewe, M. O., Lassale, C. M., Weiderpass, E., Andersson, J. S. O., Huerta, J. M., Ekelund, U., Aleksandrova, K., Tong, T. Y. N., Dahm, C. C., et al. (2022) · European Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1093/eurjpc/zwac055 · Cited by 19
Overweight, Obesity, and Mortality
Appels, C. W. Y., & Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2006) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmc062590 · Cited by 18
An epidemic of cockles-associated hepatitis A in Singapore.
Goh, K. T., Chan, L., Ding, J.-C., et al. (1984) · PubMed · Cited by 18
Indoor radon and risk of lung cancer: an epidemiological study in Finland
Ruosteenoja, E. (1991) · STM:n Hallinnonalan avoin julkaisuarkisto (Julkari) · Cited by 18
Thiruvengadam, R., Ayushi, A., Murugesan, D. R., Desiraju, B. K., Misra, S., Sharma, D., Subbaian, S. S., Mehta, U. K., Singh, A., Sharma, S., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Global Health · doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(24)00212-2 · Cited by 17
Family history and the risk of colorectal cancer: The importance of patients' history of colonoscopy
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“Calculation of adjusted PAF was based on the method of Bruzzi et al.16 using a formula proposed by Miettinen.17 We used bootstrapping (n5 1,000) for estimating 95% confidence intervals as suggested by Miller.18 All analyses were conducted using the statistical software package SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).”
MethodInfluentialThapa, S., Ahmed, K. Y., Bizuayehu, H. M., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-73522-5 · Cited by 17
“The PAF serves as a metric indicating the proportion of obesity among reproductive age women in Asian countries that could potentially be mitigated by addressing the identified potentially modifiable risk factors within the population 27 .”
BackgroundMethodWang, P., Huang, S., Wang, R., et al. (2024) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.14.04200 · Cited by 17
Burden of ischemic heart disease mortality attributable to physical inactivity in Brazil
Silva, D. A. S., Malta, D. C., de Souza, M. D. F. M., & Naghavi, M. (2018) · Revista de Saúde Pública · doi:10.11606/s1518-8787.2018052000413 · Cited by 16
Population attributable risks for breast cancer in Swedish women by morphological type
Granström, C., Sundquist, J., & Hemminki, K. (2007) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-007-9814-2 · Cited by 17
“PAF is the proportion of disease cases in a population that is attributable to a particular exposure or ‘‘the fraction of all cases (exposed and unexposed) that would not have occurred if exposure had not occurred [21, 25, 26]‘‘.”
Mehlig, K., Strandhagen, E., Svensson, P., et al. (2014) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2014.08.011 · Cited by 17
“This is a theoretical conceptwhichcanbebasedonrelative riskorodds ratioas an approximation of the former (Miettinen, 1974).”
BackgroundImpact of time spent walking on incident dementia in elderly Japanese
Tomata, Y., Zhang, S., Sugawara, Y., & Tsuji, I. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5011 · Cited by 17
The Relative Importance of the Major Risk Factors in Atherosclerotic and Other Diseases
Whyte, H. M. (1976) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.1976.tb03020.x · Cited by 17
Schulte, P. A., & Perera, F. P. (1993) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-092566-0.50007-0 · Cited by 17
WHERE WE ARE AND WHERE WE WANT TO GO
Jenicek, M. (1989) · Cited by 17
Smith, J. R., Huang, A., Lin, F. R., Reed, N. S., & Deal, J. A. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glad117 · Cited by 19
Nemati, S., Mohebbi, E., Toorang, F., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1002/ijc.34659 · Cited by 16
“For example, a reduction in the prevalence of tobacco smoking has led to a significant decline in the incidence of and mortality from lung cancer in Europe.5,6 Understanding the contribution of various risk factors to the occurrence of different cancers is crucial for prioritizing cancer control activities in low and…”
BackgroundVision Impairment and the Population Attributable Fraction of Dementia in Older Adults
Smith, J. R., Huang, A., Zhou, Y., Varadaraj, V., Swenor, B. K., Whitson, H. E., Reed, N. S., Deal, J. A., & Ehrlich, J. R. (2024) · JAMA Ophthalmology · doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2024.3131 · Cited by 18
Familial invasive and borderline ovarian tumors by proband status, age and histology
Hemminki, K., & Granström, C. (2003) · International Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1002/ijc.11151 · Cited by 16
Eguchi, E., Iso, H., Wada, Y., Kikuchi, S., Watanabe, Y., & Tamakoshi, A. (2012) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.je20110163 · Cited by 16
Evaluation of cancer service screening: case referent studies recommended
Verbeek, A. L. M., & Broeders, M. J. M. (2010) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/0962280209359856 · Cited by 16
Moreira, B. D. S., Andrade, A. C. D. S., Xavier, C. C., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Health Research · doi:10.1080/09603123.2020.1782354 · Cited by 16
Recurrence of Stillbirth in Sibships: Population-based Cohort Study
Melve, K. K., Skjærven, R., Rasmussen, S., et al. (2010) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwq259 · Cited by 16
Diabetes mellitus in Native Americans: The problem and its implications
Narayan, K. M. V. (1997) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1023/a:1005745215330 · Cited by 16
“fraction (PARF) (Miettinen 1974).”
The extrapolation of attributable risk to new populations
Ellenberg, J. H. (1988) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780070609 · Cited by 16
Musculoskeletal disorders and disability in Finland
Sievers, K., Heliövaara, M., Melkas, T., et al. (1988) · Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology · doi:10.3109/03009748809105307 · Cited by 16
Chiesa, R., Donato, F., Portolani, N., et al. (1995) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/bf01721229 · Cited by 16
“The estimates of population attributable risks (AR) for alcohol drinking and HBV infection were computed according to Miettinen's formulation [17], using the proportion of hepatocarcinoma (HCC) cases, as defined by biopsy or cytology, with the marker of increased risk among the incident cases in Brescia.”
MethodGrilli, R. G., Alexanian, A. A., Apolone, G., et al. (1990) · Annals of Oncology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.annonc.a057687 · Cited by 16
Population Attributable Fraction (PAF) in epidemiologic follow-up studies
Laaksonen, M. A. (2010) · Tampere University Institutional Repository (Tampere University) · Cited by 16
The contribution of hypertension to mortality in the US: 1968, 1977.
Wing, S., & Mantón, K. G. (1983) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.73.2.140 · Cited by 16
McLain, A. C., Frongillo, E. A., Hess, S. Y., & Piwoz, E. (2018) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmy094 · Cited by 16
“Thus, the risk factors need to be statistically independent, and have etiologic influences that are biologically independent (29).”
BackgroundMan, J., Ni, Y., Yang, X., Zhang, T., Yuan, Z., Chen, H., Chen, X., Lu, M., & Ye, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.774530 · Cited by 15
Injury patterns associated with hypotension in pediatric trauma patients
Gardner, A. R., Diz, D. I., Tooze, J. A., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/ta.0000000000000658 · Cited by 15
“Another possibility is that the hypotension in this age group is neurogenic in origin, similar to the known phenomenon of spinal shock, or caused by neurohumoral factors involved in the stress response.(10,11) It is also possible that, included in the category of neurogenic shock, it can be described as an autonomic p…”
BackgroundEarly discontinuation and dose reduction of adjuvant chemotherapy in stage III colon cancer patients
Boakye, D., Jansen, L., Halama, N., Chang-Claude, J. C., Hoffmeister, M., & Brenner, H. (2021) · Therapeutic Advances in Medical Oncology · doi:10.1177/17588359211006348 · Cited by 16
How common is repetitive strain injury?
Palmer, K. T., Reading, I., Calnan, M., et al. (2007) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.2007.035378 · Cited by 15
Occupation, smoking, and lung cancer.
Dave, S. K., Edling, C., Jacobsson, P., et al. (1988) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.45.11.790 · Cited by 15
Cancers attributable to overweight and obesity in Italy
Maso, M. D., Pelucchi, C., Collatuzzo, G., Alicandro, G., Malvezzi, M., Parazzini, F., Negri, E., Boffetta, P., Vecchia, C. L., & Turati, F. (2023) · Cancer Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.canep.2023.102468 · Cited by 15
Kedikoglou, S., Belechri, M., Dedoukou, X., et al. (2004) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1080/14034940410028334 · Cited by 14
“According to Miettinen’s formula [7], this OR”
Attributable causes of cancer in China: Fruit and vegetable
Xiao, H., Liang, H., Wang, J.-B., et al. (2011) · Chinese Journal of Cancer Research · doi:10.1007/s11670-011-0171-7 · Cited by 14
“It was defined as the proportional reduction in population disease or mortality that would occur if exposure to the risk factor was reduced to an alternative exposure scenario[11] and expressed as a percentage.”
BackgroundPublic Health Perspectives on Depressive Disorders
Cohen, N. L. (2017) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · doi:10.1353/book.52762 · Cited by 15
Cross‐sectional study of associations between prior spontaneous abortions and preterm delivery
Samani, R. O., Mansournia, M. A., Sepidarkish, M., Almasi‐Hashiani, A., Safiri, S., Vesali, S., Amini, P., & Maroufizadeh, S. (2017) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1002/ijgo.12348 · Cited by 14
Comparative Disease Assessment: a multi-causal approach for estimating the burden of mortality
Seuc, A. H., Fernandez-Gonzalez, L., & Mirabal, M. (2020) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-020-01340-w · Cited by 14
“Alternatively, for n biologically independent and uncorrelated risk factors, the joint PAF is given by the equation (Miettinen 1974): PAF ¼ 1− ∏ n i¼1 1−PAFið Þ where PAFi represents the PAF of individual risk factors.”
MethodPopulation attributable fractions for continuously distributed exposures
Ferguson, J. P., Maturo, F., Yusuf, S., & O'Donnell, M. J. (2020) · Epidemiologic Methods · doi:10.1515/em-2019-0037 · Cited by 14
Neighbourhood effects on young people's future living conditions: Longitudinal findings from Sweden
Brännström, L. (2011) · International Journal of Social Welfare · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2011.00842.x · Cited by 14
The effects of joint misclassification of exposure and disease on the attributable risk
Vogel, C., Brenner, H., Pfahlberg, A. B., & Gefeller, O. (2005) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.2065 · Cited by 14
“A useful alternative formula for the attributable risk, originally introduced by Miettinen [35], is best suited to estimate the AR under various study designs:”
BackgroundApproaches to disease cluster investigations in a state health department
Smith, D. F., & Neutra, R. (1993) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780121904 · Cited by 14
Applications of the concept of attributable fraction in medical genetics
Khoury, M. J., Beaty, T. H., & Cohen, B. H. (1991) · American Journal of Medical Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320400211 · Cited by 14
Roest, M., van der Schouw, Y. T., Grobbee, D. E., et al. (2001) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/153.7.673 · Cited by 14
INTERVENTION EFFECTS AMONG A COLLECTION OF RISKS
Tolley, H. D., & Mantón, K. G. (1991) · Cited by 14
Wasswa, R., Kananura, R. M., Muhanguzi, H., et al. (2023) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0001899 · Cited by 13
Li, X., Zeng, J., Chen, B., Fan, M., Wang, J., Wei, L., Ren, Y., & Xu, S. (2023) · Current Hypertension Reports · doi:10.1007/s11906-023-01278-w · Cited by 14
“This represents the proportion of cases or the observed mortality that might be potentially averted with elimination of the harmful risk factor [28, 29].”
The implications of late-preterm birth for global child survival
Osrin, D. (2010) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyq096 · Cited by 13
Allergic diseases attributable to atopy in a population sample of Asian children
Wu, C.-Y., Huang, H., Pan, W., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-95579-2 · Cited by 13
Genetic and Environmental Factors
(2013) · Apple Academic Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b16340-2 · Cited by 13
A cross-ethnic comparison on incidence of suicide
Liu, I. C., Liao, S., Lee, W., Kao, C. Y., Jenkins, R., & Cheng, A. T. A. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291710001807 · Cited by 15
“The (single-factor) PAF was calculated using the prevalence of the factor (p) among suicides and the OR associated with the factor as follows: PAF=pr (OR – 1)/OR (Miettinen, 1974).”
MethodBirth Defect and Risk Factor Surveillance in the Northern and Southwestern Netherlands
Reefhuis, J., Zandwijken, G. R. J., de Walle, H. E. K., et al. (1999) · Public Health Genomics · doi:10.1159/000016193 · Cited by 13
Andréasson, S., & Allebeck, P. (1991) · International Journal of the Addictions · doi:10.3109/10826089109058915 · Cited by 13
Progress in the Estimation of Mortality due to Diabetes
Boyko, E. J. (2005) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.28.9.2320 · Cited by 13
“The calculations used in these instances are fairly straightforward and simple (5).”
MethodAssociation of the GABRB3 Gene with Nonsyndromic Oral Clefts
Inoue, H., Kayano, S., Aoki, Y., et al. (2008) · The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal · doi:10.1597/06-142 · Cited by 13
Potential health gains from reducing multiple risk factors
Ezzati, M., Hoorn, S. V., Rodgers, A., López, A. D., Mathers, C. D., & Murray, C. J. L. (2004) · Cited by 15
Measures of treatment efficacy
Hujoel, P. P., Baab, D. A., & DeRouen, T. A. (1993) · Journal Of Clinical Periodontology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-051x.1993.tb00778.x · Cited by 13
Petridou, E. T., Trichopoulos, D., SOTIRIOU, A., et al. (1998) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/33.5.502 · Cited by 13
“Using a formula derived by Miettinen (1974), it is possible to calculate the proportion of road traffic injuries in Athens that can be attributed to alcohol intake.”
MethodBLOOD PRESSURE LEVEL, HYPERTENSION AND FIVE‐YEAR MORTALITY IN FINLAND
Aromaa, A. J. (1981) · Acta Medica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1981.tb02618.x · Cited by 13
Humphreys, A. B. C., Linsell, L., & Knight, M. (2022) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2022.08.037 · Cited by 12
“To determine the population attributable fraction for each identified adjusted risk 263 factor, Miettinen’s formula was utilized.(18) 264”
Lung cancer mortality attributable to residential radon in Germany
Heinzl, F., Schnelzer, M., & Scholz-Kreisel, P. (2024) · Radiation and Environmental Biophysics · doi:10.1007/s00411-024-01095-y · Cited by 14
HPV screening, invasive cervical cancer and screening policy in Australia
Cox, B., & Sneyd, M. J. (2018) · Journal of the American Society of Cytopathology · doi:10.1016/j.jasc.2018.07.003 · Cited by 13
Wändell, P. E., Carlsson, A. C., Li, X., Gašević, D., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2020) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-019-01449-3 · Cited by 13
Pakzad, R., Nedjat, S., Salehiniya, H., Mansournia, N., Etminan, M., Nazemipour, M., Pakzad, I., & Mansournia, M. A. (2023) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-023-01978-6 · Cited by 12
“Population Attributable Fraction (PAF) The Miettinen Formula [61] was used for calculatiing PAF for alcohol consumption using Formula 6:”
MethodMatrat, M., Guida, F., Cénée, S., Févotte, J., Carton, M., Cyr, D., Menvielle, G., Paget‐Bailly, S., Radoï, L., Schmaus, A., et al. (2015) · Journal of Cancer Epidemiology · doi:10.1155/2015/879302 · Cited by 12
“Population attributable fraction (PAF) associated with DME exposure and the corresponding 95% CI were estimated, using the proportion of people definitely exposed to DME among asbestos never exposed subgroup and the OR adjusted for age, department, lifelong cigarette smoking, and number of jobs [27, 28].”
MethodAssociation Between Relevant Co-Morbidities and Dementia With Atrial Fibrillation–A National Study
Wändell, P. E., Carlsson, A. C., Li, X., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2019) · Archives of Medical Research · doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2019.05.007 · Cited by 13
“%) among cases multiplied by HR-1/HR (12), using adjusted HRs for the different factors.”
MethodHurwitz, L. M., Michels, K. A., Cook, M. B., Pfeiffer, R. M., & Trabert, B. L. (2020) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/s10552-020-01357-2 · Cited by 12
Zhang, X., Zhang, P., Li, Z., et al. (2021) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711452100372x · Cited by 12
“The population-attributable fraction, an estimated fraction of all COPD cases that would not have occurred if all individuals would have been in the less smoking category and/or have taken glucosamine(32), was calculated according to Miettinen’s formula(33).”
MethodPathway-specific population attributable fractions
O’Connell, M., & Ferguson, J. P. (2022) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyac079 · Cited by 13
Local estimates of population attributable risk
Walter, S. D. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.02.001 · Cited by 12
Días, A., & Cordeiro, R. (2007) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/s0102-311x2007000700016 · Cited by 12
Identifying target groups for the prevention of depression in early adolescence: The TRAILS study
Monshouwer, K., Smit, F., Ruiter, M., Ormel, H., Verhulst, F. C., Vollebergh, W., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.026 · Cited by 12
“Nevertheless, the PAF can be used for the ranking of risk factors with regard to their potential for prevention (Miettinen, 1974; Rothman and Greenland, 1998).”
Jacobson, D. L., Bica, I., Knox, T. A., et al. (2003) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/379072 · Cited by 12
“We also evaluated the population-attributable risk of symptoms on acute weight loss, as described by Miettinen [23].”
MethodCustomer Satisfaction Analysis
Funa, L. (2011) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 12
Hamilton, E. M., Yang, L., Wright, N., Turnbull, I. J., Mentzer, A. J., Matthews, P. C., Chen, Y., Du, H., Kartsonaki, C., Pang, Y., et al. (2023) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.123.043327 · Cited by 11
“28 The number of stroke cases attributed to chronic HBV in the Chinese population was estimated by multiplying the population-attributable fraction with reported Chinese stroke prevalence estimates from the 2019 Global Burden of Disease Study.”
MethodZhao, H., Zhang, X., Li, Y., Wang, W., Lai, W., Zhang, W., Kang, K., Zhong, X., & Guo, L. (2024) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/acel.14430 · Cited by 12
“Additionally, we calculated population attributable fraction (PAF), which measures the proportion of disease cases attributed to a specific exposure in the population (Miettinen, 1974 ).”
Siemiatycki, J., Karp, I., Sylvestre, M., et al. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2014.302040 · Cited by 11
Islami, F., Dikshit, R. P., Mallath, M. K., et al. (2015) · Cancer Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.canep.2015.11.012 · Cited by 11
Overall fraction of disease attributable to multiple dependent risk factors: a new formula
Niedhammer, I., & Chastang, J. (2021) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(21)00366-5 · Cited by 11
Ko, Y., Williams, A. M., Peerson, J. M., Luo, H., Flores‐Ayala, R. C., Wirth, J. P., Engle‐Stone, R., Young, M. F., & Suchdev, P. S. (2022) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0001071 · Cited by 11
Gestational weight gain and pregnancy outcomes in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus
Xie, X., Liu, J., García‐Patterson, A., Chico, A. I., Mateu-Salat, M., Amigó, J., Adelantado, J. M., & Corcoy, R. (2023) · Acta Diabetologica · doi:10.1007/s00592-023-02031-0 · Cited by 14
“1 3 associations with an aOR < 1 [29] even when significance versus aGWG was not reached for individual GWG categories.”
BackgroundAttributable fraction and related measures: Conceptual relations in the counterfactual framework
Suzuki, E., & Yamamoto, E. (2023) · Journal of Causal Inference · doi:10.1515/jci-2021-0068 · Cited by 11
Self‐reported occupational skin contact with cleaning agents and the risk of disability pension
Feveile, H., Christensen, K. B., & Flyvholm, M. (2009) · Contact Dermatitis · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.2008.01495.x · Cited by 11
“The relative contribution of occupational exposure to cleaning agents can be determined by calculating the aetiologic fraction, which is defined as the fraction of the outcome that was caused by a specific predictor (15).”
BackgroundThe relationship between intraoperative oliguria and acute kidney injury
du Toit, L., & Biccard, B. M. (2019) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.008 · Cited by 12
von Cube, M., Schumacher, M. C., Putter, H., et al. (2019) · Biometrical Journal · doi:10.1002/bimj.201800252 · Cited by 11
“(2) only by the target population. Thus, adjustment for confounding is based on established methods available for estimands that ignore time of exposure and outcome, such as the approach proposed by [16]. 3.1 Formal denition of PAF LM;h The estimand PAF LM;h consists of a set of separate estimands PAF(l;h). These depe…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLiu, L., Miao, W., Sun, B., Robins, J. M., & Tchetgen, E. T. (2018) · Statistica Sinica · doi:10.5705/ss.202017.0196 · Cited by 12
“In epidemiology studies concerning the toxic effects of a new drug or the treatment effect only on those who take the treatment, the ETT is the parameter of interest and it is known as “the effect of exposure on the exposed,” or “standardized morbidity” (Miettinen, 1974; Greenland and Robins, 1986).”
Chang, J., Kim, J. A., Kim, K., Choi, S., Kim, S. M., Nam, Y.-Y., Park, S., Goo, A. J., & Park, S. M. (2020) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102161 · Cited by 11
Mutua, M. K., Mohamed, S. F., Iddi, S., Muyingo, S. K., Mwangi, B., & Kadengye, D. T. (2020) · Global Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.gloepi.2020.100044 · Cited by 11
Htet, K. K. K., Chongsuvivatwong, V., & Aung, S. T. (2021) · Tropical Medicine and Health · doi:10.1186/s41182-020-00292-x · Cited by 11
“The population attributable fraction (PAF) for each predictor variable was also calculated to assess the public health impact of social pathology characteristics in population for TB occurrence by using Miettinen’s formula [29] which is defined as follows:”
MethodReview of epidemiologic studies of aluminium and neurological disorders
Craun, G. F. (1990) · Environmental Geochemistry and Health · doi:10.1007/bf01734062 · Cited by 11
Barnett, E. (1995) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-10.2.105 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- MIETTINEN, O. S.
- Corresponding author
- MIETTINEN, OLLI S.
- Venue
- American Journal of Epidemiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1974-05
- Volume
- 99
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 325-332
- ISSN
- 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-6256
- OpenAlex
- W1953501928
- Cited by
- 1,036
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 7.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Historical and modern epidemiology studies
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Keywords
- population attributable fraction, prevented fraction, attributable fraction, risk indicators, standardized morbidity ratio, case-control study, disease prevention
- MeSH terms
- Coffee, Coronary Disease, Drinking, Epidemiologic Methods, Humans, Hypercholesterolemia, Hypertension, Models, Theoretical, Morbidity, Myocardial Infarction, Population, Preventive Medicine, Smoking, Statistics as Topic
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