The DOI matches its Crossref record; 38 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Caffeine effects on learning, performance, and anxiety in normal school‐age children
Abstract
Objective The purpose of this investigation was to study the acute effects of caffeine on learning, performance, and anxiety in normal prepubertal children.Method Twenty-one children were evaluated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design. Subjects were studied during four sessions, 1 week apart, under the following conditions: baseline, placebo, 2.5 mg/kg caffeine, and 5.0 mg/kg caffeine. Subjects were randomized to order of placebo and the two dosages of caffeine. Dependent measures included tests of attention, manual dexterity, short-term memory, and processing speed. Anxiety rating scales were also administered. Saliva samples were analyzed for caffeine levels.Results Caffeine improved performance on two of four measures of the Test of Variables of Attention and on a test of manual dexterity in the dominant hand. There was a trend toward increased current level of self-reported anxiety after caffeine on a visual analogue measure of anxiety. Children reported feeling significantly less "sluggish" after caffeine ingestion than after placebo ingestion.Conclusions In a small sample size, there was indication that caffeine enhanced performance on a test of attention and on a motor task. Children also reported feeling less "sluggish" but somewhat more anxious. Because caffeine is so widely available and frequently consumed by children, these results are important and need replication.
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“Caffeine intake was not significantly associated with any of these measures of self-reported anxiety, whereas a significant linear association was reported between caffeine concentrations in saliva and the anxiety state item in the VAA-R scale only.”
From Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine (2015) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 1994
In the citing paper
“The Panel notes that caffeine intakes were not significantly associated with anxiety, and that caffeine concentrations in saliva were generally not associated with self-reported measures of anxiety in this study.”
From Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine (2015) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 1994
In the citing paper
“The Panel notes that these studies (Elkins et al., 1981;Rapoport et al., 1981b;Bernstein et al., 1994) do not show an effect of single doses of caffeine ranging from 2.5 to 10 mg/kg bw on most selfreported measures of anxiety in children.”
From Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine (2015) · cites this paper as Bernstein et al., 1994
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Levesque, R. J. R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33228-4_344
Gao, J., Xie, Y.-Y., Zhang, X., Geng, Q., Li, F., Li, P., Liu, S., & Wang, J. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000046013
Zhang, A., Ni, Y., Zhang, Z., Wang, J., Chen, W., Chang, F., Cui, H., Yuan, C., Hang, D., & Li, L. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2026.1950050
Peterkin, J. (2012) · UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia)
Metadata
- Authors
- BERNSTEIN, G. A., CARROLL, M. E., CROSBY, R. D., PERWIEN, A. R., GO, F. S., & BENOWITZ, N. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- San Francisco General Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- CARROLL, MARILYN E.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1994-03
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 407-415
- ISSN
- 0890-8567 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2019483208
- Cited by
- 108
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 0.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5p50da001696-18)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA R37 DA03240, P01DA008131, R37DA003240, NIDA DAO1696, P01-DA-08131)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Coffee research and impacts
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Neuroethics, Human Enhancement, Biomedical Innovations
- Keywords
- caffeine, children, attention, manual dexterity, short-term memory, processing speed, anxiety, cognitive performance, prepubertal children, caffeine dose-response
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety, Caffeine, Child, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Humans, Learning, Psychometrics, Saliva, Task Performance and Analysis
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