Evolution of Models of Working Memory and Cognitive Resources
Abstract
The goal of this article is to trace the evolution of models of working memory and cognitive resources from the early 20th century to today. Linear flow models of information processing common in the 1960s and 1970s centered on the transfer of verbal information from a limited-capacity short-term memory store to long-term memory through rehearsal. Current conceptions see working memory as a dynamic system that includes both maintaining and manipulating information through a series of interactive components that include executive control and attentional resources. These models also reflect the evolution from an almost exclusive concentration on working memory for verbal materials to inclusion of a visual working memory component. Although differing in postulated mechanisms and emphasis, these evolving viewpoints all share the recognition that human information processing is a limited-capacity system with limits on the amount of information that can be attended to, remain activated in memory, and utilized at one time. These limitations take on special importance in spoken language comprehension, especially when the stimuli have complex linguistic structures or listening effort is increased by poor acoustic quality or reduced hearing acuity.
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There is an abundance of existing models pertaining to cognitive effort.
“Furthermore, as described earlier, there is an abundance of existing models pertaining to cognitive effort (see Wingfield 2016, this issue, pp. 35S-43S)”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Wingfield 2016
Cites
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The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies
Baddeley, A. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422 · Cited by 4,271 · see citing works
N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.
Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20131 · Cited by 3,560 · see citing works
Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL)
Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Kramer, S. E., Eckert, M. A., Edwards, B., Hornsby, B. W. Y., Humes, L. E., Lemke, U., Lunner, T., Matthen, M., Mackersie, C. L., et al. (2016) · Ear & Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000312 · Cited by 1,318 · cited 2× · see citing works
“A major feature of the framework for understanding effortful listening (FUEL) and its consequences presented in the article by Pichora-Fuller et al. 2016 (this issue, pp. 5S–27S) is the relationship between the cognitive demands needed for perceptual success and the supply of available cognitive…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationHow young and old adults listen to and remember speech in noise.
Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Schneider, B. A., & Daneman, M. (1995) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.412282 · Cited by 1,089 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…noise deprives the listener of the resources that would otherwise be available for encoding what has been heard in memory (Rabbitt 1968, 1991; Pichora-Fuller et al. 1995; Wingfield et al. 2005; Surprenant 2007) or comprehension of sentences that express their meaning with complex syntax…”
BackgroundThe concurrent validity of the <i>N</i> -back task as a working memory measure
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B. (2010) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211003702171 · Cited by 981 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As each item is presented, the participant’s task is to say whether this item is the same as the one before it (1-back), or two items prior (2-back), and so forth, with the distance of the requested match response progressively increased until errors begin to occur (e.g., Jaeggi et al. 2010).”
BackgroundMcGarrigle, R., Munro, K. J., Dawes, P., Stewart, A. J., Moore, D. R., Barry, J. G., & Amitay, S. (2014) · International Journal of Audiology · doi:10.3109/14992027.2014.890296 · Cited by 532 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Titchener’s (1908) notion of psychic energy was an early precursor to the current interest in cognitive effort and the measurement of listening effort (e.g., McGarrigle et al. 2014).”
BackgroundWhat is working memory capacity, and how can we measure it?
Wilhelm, O., Hildebrandt, A., & Oberauer, K. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00433 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Mild hearing loss can cause apparent memory failures which increase with age and reduce with IQ
Rabbitt, P. (1991) · Acta Oto-Laryngologica · doi:10.3109/00016489109127274 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
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Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL)
Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Kramer, S. E., Eckert, M. A., Edwards, B., Hornsby, B. W. Y., Humes, L. E., Lemke, U., Lunner, T., Matthen, M., Mackersie, C. L., et al. (2016) · Ear & Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000312 · Cited by 1,318 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Wingfield, A.
- Affiliations
- Brandeis University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wingfield, Arthur
- ORCID
- Wingfield, Arthur
- Venue
- Ear & Hearing
- Published
- 2016-07
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 35S-43S
- ISSN
- 0196-0202 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2475311120
- Cited by
- 123
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 7
- FWCI
- 7.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Ear and Hearing (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- W. M. Keck Foundation
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG038490)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hearing Loss and Rehabilitation
- Keywords
- working memory, cognitive resources, short-term memory, rehearsal, long-term memory, executive function, attentional resources, visual working memory, verbal working memory, spoken language comprehension, listening effort, hearing loss
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Cognition, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Models, Psychological, Speech Perception, Linear Models, Executive Function
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