N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.

Owen, Adrian M.; McMillan, Kathryn M.; Laird, Angela R.; Bullmore, Ed

doi:10.1002/hbm.20131

Cited by 3,560Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Abilities and TestingNeurobiology of Language and Bilingualism

N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.

Open access

Owen, Adrian M., McMillan, Kathryn M., Laird, Angela R., Bullmore, Ed·2005·Human Brain Mapping

DOI 10.1002/hbm.20131PMC PMC6871745

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

One of the most popular experimental paradigms for functional neuroimaging studies of working memory has been the n‐back task, in which subjects are asked to monitor the identity or location of a series of verbal or nonverbal stimuli and to indicate when the currently presented stimulus is the same as the one presented n trials previously. We conducted a quantitative meta‐analysis of 668 sets of activation coordinates in Talairach space reported in 24 primary studies of n‐back task variants manipulating process (location vs. identity monitoring) and content (verbal or nonverbal) of working memory. We found the following cortical regions were activated robustly (voxelwise false discovery rate = 1%): lateral premotor cortex; dorsal cingulate and medial premotor cortex; dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; frontal poles; and medial and lateral posterior parietal cortex. Subsidiary meta‐analyses based on appropriate subsets of the primary data demonstrated broadly similar activation patterns for identity monitoring of verbal stimuli and both location and identity monitoring of nonverbal stimuli. There was also some evidence for distinct frontoparietal activation patterns in response to different task variants. The functional specializations of each of the major cortical components in the generic large‐scale frontoparietal system are discussed. We conclude that quantitative meta‐analysis can be a powerful tool for combining results of multiple primary studies reported in Talairach space. Here, it provides evidence both for broadly consistent activation of frontal and parietal cortical regions by various versions of the n‐back working memory paradigm, and for process‐ and content‐specific frontoparietal activation by working memory. Hum Brain Mapp 25:46–59, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/hbm.20131

Cites

88 of 88 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Complex span tasks and the n-back are two commonly used task types for assessing individual differences in working memory capacity.
“Two types of tasks are frequently used to measure individual differences in working memory capacity-complex span tasks and the n-back”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
In neuroscientific research, the n-back has been the most common measure of working memory capacity.
“In neuroscientific research, by contrast, the n-back has been the most prevalent measure of working memory capacity (Owen et al., 2005;Wager & Smith, 2003).”
From Which “working memory” are we talking about? Complex span tasks versus N-back (2025) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
For working memory, the forward inference map revealed the most consistent associations in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior insula and dorsal medial frontal cortex (MFC).
“For working memory, the forward inference map revealed the most consistent associations in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior insula and dorsal medial frontal cortex (MFC), replicating previous findings15,20.”
From Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data. (2011) · cites this paper as [20]
The N-back and Trail Making Test involve DLPFC.
“these tests involve DLPFC (Owen et al. 2005, Zakzanis et al. 2005) and are sensitive to mTBI (Arciniega et al. 2021, Li et al. 2023).”
From Mild traumatic brain injury alters function in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: a TMS-EEG study (2025) · cites this paper as Owen et al. 2005
The n-back task is a common and well-established continuous performance test for measurements of working memory performance.
“The n-back task is a common and well-established continuous performance test for measurements of working memory performance [33], [34].”
From Dose-dependent effects of endotoxin on neurobehavioral functions in humans (2011) · cites this paper as [34]

The computerized n-back paradigm (2-back version) is a well-evaluated sensitive tool to analyze working memory functions.
“Thus, in the current study we employed a computerized n-back paradigm (2-back version), a well-evaluated sensitive tool to analyze working memory functions [34], [41], [42].”
From Dose-dependent effects of endotoxin on neurobehavioral functions in humans (2011) · cites this paper as [34]
The n-back task has been studied extensively in traditional activation and connectivity analyses, identifying a large executive working-memory network dominated by frontal and parietal regions.
“The n-back task has been studied extensively in the context of traditional activation and connectivity analyses (38, 39), identifying a large (executive) working-memory network dominated by frontal and parietal regions.”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [39]
Of the 32 regions reported by Owen et al. mapped to our partition, 46% belonged to the frontoparietal module, 27% to the somatomotor module, and 12% to the frontal module.
“We found 46% of the mapped nodes belonging to the frontoparietal module identified by us, whereas 27% belonged to the somatomotor module and 12% belonged to the frontal module.”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [39]
Activation studies and metaanalysis of n-back tasks usually investigate main effects of working-memory load and not within-load dynamics or per-trial effects in fMRI data.
“First, activation studies and metaanalysis of these tasks (39) usually investigate main effects of working-memory load and not within-load dynamics let alone per-trial effects in fMRI data.”
From Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans (2015) · cites this paper as [39]
Attentional control and working memory depend on a shared set of neural structures, many of which are dysfunctional in ADHD.
“Attentional control and WM rely on a common set of neural structures, many of which have been implicated as dysfunctional in ADHD.”
From Attentional Control Activation Relates to Working Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [16]
Meta-analyses of Stroop and working memory tasks implicate bilateral DLPFC, bilateral IFG, dACC, inferior parietal lobule, and precuneus.
“Meta-analyses of both the Stroop task (14,15) and WM tasks (16,17) have implicated bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), inferior parietal lobule, and precuneus.”
From Attentional Control Activation Relates to Working Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2010) · cites this paper as [16]
Prefrontal areas are involved in executive control and emotional regulation and have an inhibitory effect on limbic regions (amygdala, insula, hippocampus, ACC), which are associated with intrinsic emotional reactivity.
“Prefrontal areas are involved in executive control (Owen et al., 2005) and emotional regulation processes (Ochsner and Gross, 2005), and have an inhibitory effect on limbic brain regions such as the amygdala, insula, hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which are associated with intrinsic emotional reactivity (Drevets and Raichle, 1998; Phillips et al., 2003).”
From Meta-analyses of the neural mechanisms and predictors of response to psychotherapy in depression and anxiety (2018) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
The dlPFC is associated with attentional control and emotional regulation.
“this region also being associated with attentional control and emotional regulation (Hofmann et al., 2012; Kane and Engle, 2002; Owen et al., 2005; Wager and Smith, 2003).”
From Meta-analyses of the neural mechanisms and predictors of response to psychotherapy in depression and anxiety (2018) · cites this paper as Owen et al., 2005
Prefrontal cortex is a key node in the distributed cortical network recruited during WM.
“The prefrontal cortex is a key node in the distributed cortical network recruited during WM (Owen et al. 2005;Fuster 2008) and exhibits altered inhibitory microcircuitry in schizophrenia (Lewis et al. 2005;Bitanihirwe et al. 2009).”
From Linking microcircuit dysfunction to cognitive impairment: Effects of disinhibition associated with schizophrenia in a cortical working memory model (2014) · cites this paper as Owen et al. 2005
The n-back paradigm activates a network of frontoparietal areas.
“The n-back paradigm is commonly used alongside functional neuroimaging, where it activates a network of frontoparietal areas [51].”
From Wearable technology for high-frequency cognitive and mood assessment in major depressive disorder: longitudinal observational study (2019) · cites this paper as [51]
The left prefrontal cortex has a dominant role in verbal working memory, language-related executive processes, and cognitive control.
“fNIRS findings in this study were predominantly left-lateralized, consistent with the left prefrontal cortex’s dominant role in verbal working memory, language-related executive processes, and cognitive control—as supported by prior neuroimaging literature 32 , 33 .”
From Naturalistic fNIRS assessment reveals decline in executive function and altered prefrontal activation following social media use in college students (2025) · cites this paper as [33]

Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain
Corbetta, M., & Shulman, G. L. (2002) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn755 · Cited by 12,881 · see citing works
An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 · Cited by 12,803 · see citing works
Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands
Duncan, J., & Owen, A. M. (2000) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01633-7 · Cited by 2,498 · see citing works
Self-citation
Temporal dynamics of brain activation during a working memory task
Cohen, J. D., Perlstein, W. M., Braver, T. S., Nystrom, L. E., Noll, D. C., Jonides, J., & Smith, E. E. (1997) · Nature · doi:10.1038/386604a0 · Cited by 1,876 · see citing works
A Parametric Study of Prefrontal Cortex Involvement in Human Working Memory
Braver, T. S., Cohen, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., & Noll, D. C. (1997) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0247 · Cited by 1,694 · see citing works
Building Memories: Remembering and Forgetting of Verbal Experiences as Predicted by Brain Activity
Wagner, A. D., Schacter, D. L., Rotte, M., Koutstaal, W., Maril, A., Dale, A. M., Rosen, B. R., & Buckner, R. L. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.281.5380.1188 · Cited by 1,620 · see citing works
Meta-analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single-word reading: method and validation
Turkeltaub, P. E., Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., & Zeffiro, T. A. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1131 · Cited by 1,604 · see citing works
Dissociation in prefrontal cortex of affective and attentional shifts
Dias, R., Robbins, T. W., & Roberts, A. C. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/380069a0 · Cited by 1,527 · see citing works
A PET study of visuospatial attention
Corbetta, M., Miezin, F. M., Shulman, G. L., & Petersen, S. (1993) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.13-03-01202.1993 · Cited by 1,522 · see citing works
Right hemispheric dominance of inhibitory control: An event-related functional MRI study
Garavan, H., Ross, T. J., & Stein, E. A. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.14.8301 · Cited by 1,394 · see citing works
Deficits on subject-ordered tasks after frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions in man
Petrides, M., & Milner, B. A. (1982) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(82)90100-2 · Cited by 1,272 · see citing works
Spatial working memory in humans as revealed by PET
Jonides, J. J., Smith, E. E., Koeppe, R. A., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., & Mintun, M. A. (1993) · Nature · doi:10.1038/363623a0 · Cited by 1,198 · see citing works
Anterior prefrontal cortex: insights into function from anatomy and neuroimaging
Ramnani, N., & Owen, A. M. (2004) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1343 · Cited by 1,170 · see citing works
Self-citation
The prefrontal landscape: implications of functional architecture for understanding human mentation and the central executive
Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1996) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0129 · Cited by 1,072 · see citing works
Working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia
(1994) · The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1176/jnp.6.4.348 · Cited by 1,068 · see citing works
The role of the anterior prefrontal cortex in human cognition
Koechlin, É., Basso, G., Pietrini, P., Panzer, S., & Grafman, J. H. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/20178 · Cited by 1,046 · see citing works
Functional MRI studies of spatial and nonspatial working memory
D’Esposito, M., Aguirre, G. K., Zarahn, E., Ballard, D., Shin, R. K., & Lease, J. (1998) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(98)00004-4 · Cited by 999 · see citing works
Dissociating Verbal and Spatial Working Memory Using PET
Smith, E. E., Jonides, J., & Koeppe, R. A. (1996) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/6.1.11 · Cited by 962 · see citing works
Transient and sustained activity in a distributed neural system for human working memory
Courtney, S. M., Ungerleider, L. G., Keil, K., & Haxby, J. V. (1997) · Nature · doi:10.1038/386608a0 · Cited by 960 · see citing works
Functional localization of the system for visuospatial attention using positron emission tomography
Nobre, A. (1997) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/120.3.515 · Cited by 900 · see citing works
ALE meta-analysis: controlling the false discovery rate and performing statistical contrasts
Laird, A. R., Fox, P. M., Price, C. J., Glahn, D. C., Uecker, A. M., Lancaster, J. L., Turkeltaub, P. E., Kochunov, P., & Fox, P. T. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20136 · Cited by 868 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Prefrontal Cortex: Response Selection or Maintenance Within Working Memory?
Rowe, J. B., Toni, I., Josephs, O., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Passingham, R. E. (2000) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.288.5471.1656 · Cited by 856 · see citing works
Neuroimaging analyses of human working memory
Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. J. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.20.12061 · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Defining the neural mechanisms of probabilistic reversal learning using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging
Cools, R., Clark, L., Owen, A. M., & Robbins, T. W. (2002) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-11-04563.2002 · Cited by 784 · see citing works
Self-citation
Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI
Callicott, J. H. (1999) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/9.1.20 · Cited by 771 · see citing works
Memory in the Cerebral Cortex
FOSTER, J. M. (1996) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199606000-00014 · Cited by 761 · see citing works
Evidence for a Two-Stage Model of Spatial Working Memory Processing within the Lateral Frontal Cortex: A Positron Emission Tomography Study
Owen, A. M., Evans, A. C., & Petrides, M. (1996) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/6.1.31 · Cited by 742 · see citing works
Self-citation
Verbal Working Memory Load Affects Regional Brain Activation as Measured by PET
Jonides, J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Minoshima, S., & Koeppe, R. A. (1997) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.462 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Prefrontal cortex activation in task switching: an event-related fMRI study
Dove, A., Pollmann, S., Schubert, T., Wiggins, C. J., & Yves von Cramon, D. (2000) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(99)00029-4 · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Dissociation of Storage and Rehearsal in Verbal Working Memory: Evidence From Positron Emission Tomography
Awh, E., Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., Schumacher, E. H., Koeppe, R. A., & Katz, S. (1996) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00662.x · Cited by 705 · see citing works
The frontopolar cortex and human cognition: Evidence for a rostrocaudal hierarchical organization within the human prefrontal cortex
Kalina Christoff, A., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2000) · Psychobiology · doi:10.3758/bf03331976 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Architectonic subdivision of the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex in the macaque monkey
Carmichael, S. T., & Price, J. L. (1994) · Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903460305 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Rostrolateral Prefrontal Cortex Involvement in Relational Integration during Reasoning
Kalina Christoff, A., Prabhakaran, V., Dorfman, J., Zhao, Z., Kroger, J. K., Holyoak, K. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0922 · Cited by 652 · see citing works
Architecture of the Prefrontal Cortex and the Central Executive
Goldman, P. S. (1995) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995.tb38132.x · Cited by 640 · see citing works
Acquisition of a memory skill.
Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7375930 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Activation of the prefrontal cortex in a nonspatial working memory task with functional MRI
Cohen, J. D., Forman, S. D., Braver, T. S., Casey, B. J., Servan‐Schreiber, D., & Noll, D. C. (1994) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.460010407 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Brain regions involved in prospective memory as determined by positron emission tomography
Burgess, P. W., Quayle, A., & Frith, C. D. (2001) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(00)00149-4 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Prefrontal cortex and episodic memory retrieval mode
Lepage, M., Ghaffar, O., Nyberg, L. H., & Tulving, E. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.97.1.506 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
The Role of Parietal Cortex in Verbal Working Memory
Jonides, J. J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Koeppe, R. A., Awh, E., Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., Marshuetz, C., & Willis, C. R. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-13-05026.1998 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
Executive Control during Episodic Retrieval
Dobbins, I. G., Foley, H. A., Schacter, D. L., & Wagner, A. D. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00858-9 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
Right prefrontal cortex and episodic memory retrieval: a functional MRI test of the monitoring hypothesis
Henson, R. N., Shallice, T., & Dolan, R. J. (1999) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/122.7.1367 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
Recruitment of Anterior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Human Reasoning: a Parametric Study of Relational Complexity
Kroger, J. K. (2002) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/12.5.477 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
The Functional Organization of Working Memory Processes Within Human Lateral Frontal Cortex: The Contribution of Functional Neuroimaging
Owen, A. M. (1997) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Self-citation
Spatiotemporal dynamics of component processes in human working memory
Gevins, A. S., & Cutillo, B. A. (1993) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/0013-4694(93)90119-g · Cited by 398 · see citing works
The functional roles of prefrontal cortex in episodic memory
Fletcher, P. C., Shallice, T., & Dolan, R. J. (1998) · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Encoding Strategies Dissociate Prefrontal Activity from Working Memory Demand
Bor, D., Duncan, J., Wiseman, R. J., & Owen, A. M. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)01171-6 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working Memory for Letters, Shapes, and Locations: fMRI Evidence against Stimulus-Based Regional Organization in Human Prefrontal Cortex
Nystrom, L. E., Braver, T. S., Sabb, F. W., Delgado, M. R., Noll, D. C., & Cohen, J. D. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0572 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Non-spatial memory after selective prefrontal lesions in monkeys
Mishkin, M., & Manning, F. J. (1978) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(78)90571-1 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Working memory for complex figures: An fMRI comparison of letter and fractal n-back tasks
Ragland, J. D., Turetsky, B. I., Gur, R. C., Gunning-Dixon, F., Turner, T., Schroeder, L., Chan, R., & Gur, R. E. (2002) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.16.3.370 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Attention Systems and the Organization of the Human Parietal Cortex
Rushworth, M. F. S., Paus, T., & Sipilä, P. (2001) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.21-14-05262.2001 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
The role of the lateral frontal cortex in mnemonic processing: the contribution of functional neuroimaging
Owen, A. M. (2000) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210000398 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Self-citation
Maintenance versus manipulation in verbal working memory revisited: an fMRI study
Veltman, D. J., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., & Dolan, R. J. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(02)00049-6 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Functional dissociations within the inferior parietal cortex in verbal working memory
Ravizza, S. M., Delgado, M. R., Chein, J. M., Becker, J. T., & Fiez, J. A. (2004) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.01.039 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
The functional roles of prefrontal cortex in episodic memory. I. Encoding
Fletcher, P. C. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.7.1239 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Direct Comparison of Prefrontal Cortex Regions Engaged by Working and Long-Term Memory Tasks
Braver, T., Barch, D., Kelley, W. M., Buckner, R., Cohen, N. J., Miezin, F. M., Snyder, A., Ollinger, J., Akbudak, E., Conturo, T., et al. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0791 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Double dissociations of memory and executive functions in working memory tasks following frontal lobe excisions, temporal lobe excisions or amygdalo-hippocampectomy in man
Owen, A. M., Morris, R. G., Sahakian, B. J., Polkey, C. E., & Robbins, T. W. (1996) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/119.5.1597 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Self-citation
The role of prefrontal cortex in working memory: examining the contents of consciousness
The American Association for Research into Nervous and Mental Diseases, Courtney, S. M., Petit, L., Haxby, J. V., & Ungerleider, L. G. (1998) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1998.0334 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Redefining the functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral prefrontal cortex
Owen, A. M., Herrod, N. J., Menon, D. K., Clark, J. C., Downey, S. P. M. J., Carpenter, T. A., Minhas, P. S., Turkheimer, F., Williams, E., Robbins, T. W., et al. (1999) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00449.x · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Self-citation
Using the talairach atlas with the MNI template
Brett, M., Kalina Christoff, A., Cusack, R., & Lancaster, J. L. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(01)91428-4 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
PET Evidence for an Amodal Verbal Working Memory System
Schumacher, E. H., Lauber, E. J., Awh, E., Jonides, J. J., Smith, E. E., & Koeppe, R. A. (1996) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0009 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Frontal lobes and behaviour
Petrides, M. (1994) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/0959-4388(94)90074-4 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Left Anterior Prefrontal Activation Increases with Demands to Recall Specific Perceptual Information
Ranganath, C., Johnson, M. K., & D’Esposito, M. (2000) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.20-22-j0005.2000 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Distribution of cortical activation during visuospatial n-back tasks as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging
Carlson, S. (1998) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/8.8.743 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Task-related and item-related brain processes of memory retrieval
Düzel, E., Cabeza, R. E. L., Picton, T. W., Yonelinas, A. P., Scheich, H., Heinze, H., & Tulving, E. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.4.1794 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Delayed matching after selective prefrontal lesions in monkeys (Macaca mulatta)
Passingham, R. E. (1975) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(75)90529-6 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Modulation of task-related neural activity in task-switching: An fMRI study.
Kimberg, D. Y., Aguirre, G. K., & D’Esposito, M. (2000) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(00)00016-1 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Brain Regions Differentially Involved in Remembering What and When: a PET Study
Cabeza, R. E. L., Mangels, J. A., Nyberg, L. H., Habib, R., Houle, S., McIntosh, A. R., & Tulving, E. (1997) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80967-8 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Reproducibility of fMRI Results across Four Institutions Using a Spatial Working Memory Task
Casey, B. J., Cohen, J., O'Craven, K., Davidson, R. J., Irwin, W., Nelson, C. A., Noll, D. C., Hu, X. P., Lowe, M. J., Rosen, B. R., et al. (1998) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1998.0360 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Ventral Prefrontal Cortex Is Not Essential for Working Memory
Rushworth, M. F. S., Nixon, P. D., Eacott, M. J., & Passingham, R. E. (1997) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-12-04829.1997 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Contribution of Working Memory to Transient Activation in Human Inferior Prefrontal Cortex during Performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
Konishi, S. (1999) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/9.7.745 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
The role of the left prefrontal cortex in verbal processing
Kapur, S., Rose, R., Liddle, P. F., Zipursky, R. B., Brown, G. M., Stuss, D. T., Houle, S., & Tulving, E. (1994) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199410270-00051 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Prolonged Reaction Time to a Verbal Working Memory Task Predicts Increased Power of Posterior Parietal Cortical Activation
Honey, G. D., Bullmore, E. T., & Sharma, T. (2000) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0624 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Self-citation
Attentional Networks, Confusional States and Neglect Syndromes
Mesulam, M. M. (2000) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195134759.003.0003 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Activity in fusiform face area modulated as a function of working memory load
Druzgal, T. J., & D’Esposito, M. (2001) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(00)00056-2 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Dissociating the Roles of the Rostral Anterior Cingulate and the Lateral Prefrontal Cortices in Performing Two Tasks Simultaneously or Successively
Dreher, J. (2003) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/13.4.329 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Working Memory of Auditory Localization
Martinkauppi, S. (2000) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/10.9.889 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Neural Correlates of Memory Retrieval during Recognition Memory and Cued Recall
Rugg, M. D., Fletcher, P. C., Allan, K., Frith, C., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Dolan, R. J. (1998) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.1998.0363 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Prefrontal cortical involvement in verbal encoding strategies
Bor, D., Cumming, N., Scott, C. E. L., & Owen, A. M. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03438.x · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citation
Functional Disconnection Between the Prefrontal and Parietal Cortices During Working Memory Processing in Schizophrenia: A [15O]H2O PET Study
Kim, J., Kwon, J. S., Park, H., Youn, T., Kang, D. H., Kim, M. S., Lee, D. S., & Lee, M. C. (2003) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.919 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Interaction of the Amygdala with the Frontal Lobe in Reward Memory
Gaffan, D., Murray, E. A., & Fabre‐Thorpe, M. (1993) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1993.tb00948.x · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Dissociating a Common Working Memory Network from Different Neural Substrates of Phonological and Spatial Stimulus Processing
Zurowski, B., Gostomzyk, J., Grön, G., Weller, R., Schirrmeister, H., Neumeier, B., Spitzer, M., Reske, S. N., & Walter, H. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0968 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Working Memory in Another Dimension: Functional Imaging of Human Olfactory Working Memory
Dade, L. A., Zatorre, R. J., Evans, A. C., & Jones‐Gotman, M. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0868 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Topographic segregation and convergence of verbal, object, shape and spatial working memory in humans
Hautzel, H., Mottaghy, F. M., Schmidt, D., Zemb, M., Shah, N. J., Müller-Gärtner, H.-W., & Krause, B. J. (2002) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(02)00125-8 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Working Memory of Identification of Emotional Vocal Expressions: An fMRI Study
Pia Rämä, A., Martinkauppi, S., Linnankoski, I., Koivisto, J., Aronen, H. J., & Carlson, S. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0777 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Sensorimotor integration in posterior parietal cortex.
Andersen, R. A., & Buneo, C. A. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Dissociation of Working Memory Processing Associated with Native and Second Languages: PET Investigation
Kim, J., Kim, M. S., Lee, J. S., Lee, D. S., Lee, M. C., & Kwon, J. S. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.1025 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Book Review: "Memory in the cerebral Cortex: An Empirical Approach to Neural Network in the Human and Nonhuman Primate", by Joaquin M. Fuster
Maltenfort, M. (1995) · International Journal of Neural Systems · doi:10.1142/s0129065795000388 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Neural correlates of passive and active encoding and retrieval: A 3T fMRI study
Dove, A., Rowe, J. B., Brett, M., & Owen, A. M. (2001) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(01)92003-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Executive functions
Diamond, A. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 · Cited by 13,268 · see citing works
Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies
Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant, L. L. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp055 · Cited by 4,060 · see citing works
Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data.
Yarkoni, T., Poldrack, R. A., Nichols, T. E., Van Essen, D. C., & Wager, T. D. (2011) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth.1635 · Cited by 3,686 · see citing works
The brain basis of emotion: a meta-analytic review
Lindquist, K. A., Wager, T. D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E., & Barrett, L. F. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11000446 · Cited by 2,320 · see citing works
“…and perception, Grezes & Decety 2001; autobiographical memory, Svoboda et al. 2006; decision making, Krain et al. 2006; executive control, Owen et al. 2005; Wager & Smith 2003; Wager et al. 2004; language, Vigneau et al. 2006; self-referential processing, Northoff 2006) means that these…”
Background
The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: Imaging acquisition across 21 sites
Casey, B. J., Cannonier, T., Conley, M. I., Cohen, A. O., Barch, D. M., Heitzeg, M. M., Soules, M. E., Teslovich, T., Dellarco, D. V., Garavan, H., et al. (2018) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2018.03.001 · Cited by 2,167 · see citing works
Cognitive and emotional control of pain and its disruption in chronic pain
Bushnell, M. C., Čeko, M., & Low, L. A. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3516 · Cited by 2,076 · see citing works
Meta-analyzing left hemisphere language areas: phonology, semantics, and sentence processing.
Vigneau, M., Beaucousin, V., Hervé, P. Y., Duffau, H., Crivello, F., Houdé, O., Mazoyer, B., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.002 · Cited by 1,851 · see citing works
Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023 · Cited by 1,834 · see citing works
Meta-analytic evidence for a superordinate cognitive control network subserving diverse executive functions
Niendam, T. A., Laird, A. R., Ray, K. L., Dean, Y. M., Glahn, D. C., & Carter, C. S. (2012) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-011-0083-5 · Cited by 1,700 · see citing works
“Activation likelihood estimation has been has been used to address similar research questions in both healthy and patient samples (Binder, Desai, Graves, & Conant, 2009; Caspers, Zilles, Laird, & Eickhoff, 2010; Chouinard & Goodale, 2010; Dickstein, Bannon, Castellanos, & Milham, 2006; Fusar-Poli et al., 2009; Glahn e…”
Self-citation
Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review.
Snyder, H. R. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0028727 · Cited by 1,667 · see citing works
Functional atlas of emotional faces processing: a voxel-based meta-analysis of 105 functional magnetic resonance imaging studies
Fusar‐Poli, P., Placentino, A., Carletti, F., Landi, P., Allen, P., Surguladze, S., Benedetti, F., Abbamonte, M., Gasparotti, R., Barale, F., et al. (2009) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1139/jpn.0953 · Cited by 1,292 · see citing works
The concurrent validity of the <i>N</i> -back task as a working memory measure
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Meier, B. (2010) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211003702171 · Cited by 981 · see citing works
Modelling neural correlates of working memory: A coordinate-based meta-analysis
Rottschy, C., Langner, R., Dogan, I., Reetz, K., Laird, A. R., Schulz, J. B., Fox, P. T., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.050 · Cited by 951 · see citing works
Self-citation
Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory
Barbey, A. K., Koenigs, M., & Grafman, J. (2013) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022 · Cited by 940 · see citing works
Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity
Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Miura, T. K., & Colflesh, G. J. H. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.615 · Cited by 933 · see citing works
A meta‐analytic study of changes in brain activation in depression
Fitzgerald, P. B., Laird, A. R., Maller, J., & Daskalakis, Z. J. (2008) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20426 · Cited by 903 · see citing works
Self-citation
ALE meta-analysis: controlling the false discovery rate and performing statistical contrasts
Laird, A. R., Fox, P. M., Price, C. J., Glahn, D. C., Uecker, A. M., Lancaster, J. L., Turkeltaub, P. E., Kochunov, P., & Fox, P. T. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20136 · Cited by 868 · see citing works
Self-citation
Functions of the left superior frontal gyrus in humans: a lesion study
Boisguéheneuc, F. D., Lévy, R., Emmanuelle Volle, C., Seassau, M., Duffau, H., Kinkingnéhun, S., Samson, Y., Zhang, S., & Dubois, B. (2006) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awl244 · Cited by 856 · see citing works
Brain connectivity related to working memory performance
Hampson, M., Driesen, N. R., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Constable, R. T. (2006) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3408-06.2006 · Cited by 853 · see citing works
Is 2+2=4? Meta-analyses of brain areas needed for numbers and calculations
Arsalidou, M., & Taylor, M. J. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.009 · Cited by 796 · see citing works
Dynamic reconfiguration of frontal brain networks during executive cognition in humans
Braun, U., Schäfer, A., Walter, H., Erk, S., Romanczuk-Seiferth, N., Haddad, L., Schweiger, J. I., Grimm, O., Heinz, A., Tost, H., et al. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1422487112 · Cited by 791 · see citing works
Remember the Future: Working Memory Training Decreases Delay Discounting Among Stimulant Addicts
Bickel, W. K., Yi, R., Landes, R. D., Hill, P. F., & Baxter, C. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.017 · Cited by 704 · see citing works
New method for fMRI investigations of language: defining ROIs functionally in individual subjects
Fedorenko, E., Hsieh, P.-J., Nieto-Castañón, A., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., & Kanwisher, N. (2010) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00032.2010 · Cited by 686 · see citing works
Functional boundaries in the human cerebellum revealed by a multi-domain task battery
King, M., Hernandez-Castillo, C. R., Poldrack, R. A., Ivry, R. B., & Diedrichsen, J. (2019) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-019-0436-x · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Working memory improvement with non-invasive brain stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Brunoni, A. R., & Vanderhasselt, M.-A. (2014) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2014.01.008 · Cited by 669 · see citing works
Disruptions of network connectivity predict impairment in multiple behavioral domains after stroke
Siegel, J. S., Ramsey, L. E., Snyder, A. Z., Metcalf, N. V., Chacko, R. V., Weinberger, K., Baldassarre, A., Hacker, C. D., Shulman, G. L., & Corbetta, M. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1521083113 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Neurocognitive Architecture of Working Memory
Eriksson, J., Vogel, E. K., Lansner, A., Bergström, F., & Nyberg, L. H. (2015) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.020 · Cited by 655 · see citing works
Optical brain monitoring for operator training and mental workload assessment
Ayaz, H., Shewokis, P. A., Bunce, S., Izzetoglu, K., Willems, B., & Onaral, B. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.023 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
Working Memory and Executive Function Decline across Normal Aging, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Alzheimer’s Disease
Kirova, A.-M., Bays, R. B., & Lagalwar, S. (2015) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2015/748212 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Cognitive effort: A neuroeconomic approach
Westbrook, A., & Braver, T. S. (2015) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0334-y · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Beyond hypofrontality: A quantitative meta‐analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of working memory in schizophrenia
Glahn, D. C., Ragland, J., Abramoff, A., Barrett, J., Laird, A. R., Bearden, C., & Velligan, D. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20138 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Self-citation
Prefrontal cortex and executive functions in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies
Yuan, P., & Raz, N. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.02.005 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Neural activity that predicts subsequent memory and forgetting: A meta-analysis of 74 fMRI studies
Kim, H. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.045 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
Obstructive Sleep Apnea: Brain Structural Changes and Neurocognitive Function before and after Treatment
Canessa, N., Castronovo, V., Cappa, S. F., Aloia, M. S., Marelli, S., Falini, A., Alemanno, F., & Ferini‐Strambi, L. (2010) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.201005-0693oc · Cited by 580 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience.
Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013345 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
A Meta-analysis of Executive Components of Working Memory
Nee, D. E., Brown, J. W., Askren, M. K., Berman, M. G., Demiralp, E., Krawitz, A., & Jonides, J. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs007 · Cited by 544 · see citing works
What Is the Subjective Cost of Cognitive Effort? Load, Trait, and Aging Effects Revealed by Economic Preference
Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068210 · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Working Memory From the Psychological and Neurosciences Perspectives: A Review
Chai, W. J., Hamid, A. I. A., & Abdullah, J. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00401 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
The acute effects of cannabinoids on memory in humans: a review
Ranganathan, M., & D’Souza, D. C. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0508-y · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Glucocorticoids and the regulation of memory in health and disease
de Quervain, D. J. ‐., Aerni, A., Schelling, G., & Roozendaal, B. (2009) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.03.002 · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Psychosocial stress induces working memory impairments in an n-back paradigm.
Schoofs, D., Preuß, D., & Wolf, O. T. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.02.004 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
A role of right middle frontal gyrus in reorienting of attention: a case study
Japee, S., Holiday, K., Satyshur, M. D., Mukai, I., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2015) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2015.00023 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
Forward frontal fields: phylogeny and fundamental function
Wise, S. P. (2008) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.08.008 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
“Research on the ‘granular’ prefrontal cortex of humans emphasizes such processes as updating, manipulating and strategic controlofinformationstoredinshort-termmemory[33, 67 ]; establishingtasksetsandrules[68];mediatinghierarchies of behavioral control; behavioral inhibition; cognitive control in social situations[69];…”
Background
Emotion regulation: quantitative meta-analysis of functional activation and deactivation
Frank, D. W., Dewitt, M., Hudgens-Haney, M., Schaeffer, D. J., Ball, B. H., Schwarz, N. F., Hussein, A. A., Smart, L. M., & Sabatinelli, D. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.06.010 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Delay Discounting: Relation to Intelligence, Working Memory, and Anterior Prefrontal Cortex
Shamosh, N. A., DeYoung, C. G., Green, A. E., Reis, D. L., Johnson, M. R., Conway, A. R. A., Engle, R. W., Braver, T. S., & Gray, J. R. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02175.x · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Motivational influences on cognitive control: Behavior, brain activation, and individual differences
Locke, H., & Braver, T. S. (2008) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.8.1.99 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Benchmarks for models of short-term and working memory.
Oberauer, K., Lewandowsky, S., Awh, E., Brown, G. D. A., Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., Donkin, C., Farrell, S., Hitch, G. J., Hurlstone, M. J., et al. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000153 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2014) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0364-z · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Effects of Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Working Memory: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Findings From Healthy and Neuropsychiatric Populations
Hill, A. T., Fitzgerald, P. B., & Hoy, K. E. (2015) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.10.006 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
On The Use of Neurophysiological Tools in Is Research: Developing A Research Agenda for Neurois1
Dimoka, A., Banker, R. D., Benbasat, I., Davis, F. D., Dennis, A. R., Gefen, D., Gupta, A., Ischebeck, A. K., Kenning, Pavlou, P. A., et al. (2012) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/41703475 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Executive functions.
Cristofori, I., Cohen-Zimerman, S., & Grafman, J. (2019) · Handbook of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804281-6.00011-2 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
The organization of dorsal frontal cortex in humans and macaques
Sallet, J., Mars, R. B., Noonan, M. P., Neubert, F.-X., Jbabdi, S., O'Reilly, J. X., Filippini, N., Thomas, A. G., & Rushworth, M. F. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5108-12.2013 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
The Contributions of Prefrontal Cortex and Executive Control to Deception: Evidence from Activation Likelihood Estimate Meta-analyses
Christ, S. E., Essen, D. C. V., Watson, J. M., Brubaker, L. E., & McDermott, K. B. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn189 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Estimating workload using EEG spectral power and ERPs in the n-back task
Brouwer, A.-M., Hogervorst, M. A., van Erp, J. B. F., Heffelaar, T., Zimmerman, P. H., & Oostenveld, R. (2012) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2560/9/4/045008 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex modulates working memory performance: combined behavioural and electrophysiological evidence
Zaehle, T., Sandmann, P., Thorne, J. D., Jäncke, L., & Herrmann, C. S. (2011) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/1471-2202-12-2 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Addictions neuroclinical assessment: a neuroscience-based framework for addictive disorders
Kwako, L. E., Momenan, R., Litten, R. Z., Koob, G. F., & Goldman, D. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.10.024 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Estrogen Shapes Dopamine-Dependent Cognitive Processes: Implications for Women's Health
Jacobs, E. G., & D’Esposito, M. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.6394-10.2011 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
The Consortium on the Genetics of Schizophrenia: Neurocognitive Endophenotypes
Gur, R. C., Calkins, M. E., Gur, R. C., Horan, W. P., Nuechterlein, K. H., Seidman, L. J., & Stone, W. S. (2006) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbl055 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Anxiety selectively disrupts visuospatial working memory
Shackman, A. J., Sarinopoulos, I., Maxwell, J. S., Pizzagalli, D. A., Lavric, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2006) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.1.40 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Mental workload during n-back task—quantified in the prefrontal cortex using fNIRS
Herff, C., Heger, D., Fortmann, O., Hennrich, J., Putze, F., & Schultz, T. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00935 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Functional connectivity between task-positive and task-negative brain areas and its relation to working memory performance
Hampson, M., Driesen, N. R., Roth, J. K., Gore, J. C., & Constable, R. T. (2010) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/j.mri.2010.03.021 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
From Brain Maps to Cognitive Ontologies: Informatics and the Search for Mental Structure
Poldrack, R. A., & Yarkoni, T. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033729 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Can cognitive models explain brain activation during word and pseudoword reading? A meta-analysis of 36 neuroimaging studies.
Taylor, J. S. H., Rastle, K., & Davis, M. H. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0030266 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Functional integration across brain regions improves speech perception under adverse listening conditions
Obleser, J., Wise, R. J. S., Alex Dresner, M., & Scott, S. K. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4663-06.2007 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Training the Emotional Brain: Improving Affective Control through Emotional Working Memory Training
Schweizer, S., Grahn, J. A., Hampshire, A., Mobbs, D., & Dalgleish, T. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2593-12.2013 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Is the behavior rating inventory of executive function more strongly associated with measures of impairment or executive function?
MCAULEY, T., CHEN, S., GOOS, L., SCHACHAR, R., & CROSBIE, J. (2010) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617710000093 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
The role of the medial prefrontal cortex in cognition, ageing and dementia
Jobson, D. D., Hase, Y., Clarkson, A. N., & Kalaria, R. N. (2021) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcab125 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
A Meta‐analysis of Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Dyslexia
Maisog, J. M., Einbinder, E. R., Flowers, D. L., Turkeltaub, P. E., & Eden, G. F. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1416.024 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
The relation between statistical power and inference in fMRI
Cremers, H. R., Wager, T. D., & Yarkoni, T. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184923 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Default Mode Dynamics for Global Functional Integration
Vatansever, D., Menon, D. K., Manktelow, A. E., Sahakian, B. J., & Stamatakis, E. A. (2015) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2135-15.2015 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Neuroanatomy of vulnerability to psychosis: A voxel-based meta-analysis
Fusar‐Poli, P., Borgwardt, S., Crescini, A., Deste, G., Kempton, M. J., Lawrie, S. M., McGuire, P. K., & Sacchetti, E. (2010) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.12.005 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
A Domain-General Cognitive Core Defined in Multimodally Parcellated Human Cortex
Assem, M., Glasser, M. F., Essen, D. C. V., & Duncan, J. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa023 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
The neural oscillations of speech processing and language comprehension: state of the art and emerging mechanisms
Meyer, L. (2017) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.13748 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
The validity of d prime as a working memory index: Results from the “Bergen n -back task”
Haatveit, B. C., Sundet, K. S., Hugdahl, K., Ueland, T., Melle, I. S., & Andreassen, O. A. (2010) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803391003596421 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
Functional neuroimaging correlates of mental fatigue induced by cognition among chronic fatigue syndrome patients and controls
Cook, D. B., O’Connor, P. J., Lange, G., & Steffener, J. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.033 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Sensitivity of fNIRS to cognitive state and load
Fishburn, F. A., Norr, M. E., Medvedev, A. V., & Vaidya, C. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00076 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Anterior insula as a gatekeeper of executive control
Molnar-Szakacs, I., & Uddin, L. Q. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104736 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: A meta-analysis
Redick, T. S., & Lindsey, D. R. B. (2013) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0453-9 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Neural Systems for Reading Aloud: A Multiparametric Approach
Graves, W. W., Desai, R. H., Humphries, C., Seidenberg, M. S., & Binder, J. R. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp245 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Rhythmic complexity and predictive coding: a novel approach to modeling rhythm and meter perception in music
Vuust, P., & Witek, M. A. G. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01111 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Brainmap taxonomy of experimental design: Description and evaluation
Fox, P., Laird, A., Fox, S. P., Fox, P., Uecker, A. M., Crank, M., Koenig, S., & Lancaster, J. (2005) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20141 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Self-citation
fMRI studies of successful emotional memory encoding: a quantitative meta-analysis
Murty, V. P., Ritchey, M., Adcock, R., & LaBar, K. S. (2010) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.07.030 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Working memory and binding in sentence recall
Baddeley, A., Hitch, G. J., & Allen, R. J. (2009) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.05.004 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Working memory, attention, and executive function in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia
Stopford, C. L., Thompson, J. C., Neary, D., Richardson, A. M. T., & Snowden, J. S. (2010) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2010.12.002 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Continuous monitoring of brain dynamics with functional near infrared spectroscopy as a tool for neuroergonomic research: empirical examples and a technological development
Ayaz, H., Onaral, B., İzzetoğlu, K., Shewokis, P. A., McKendrick, R. D., & Parasuraman, R. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00871 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Drives Mesolimbic Dopaminergic Regions to Initiate Motivated Behavior
Ballard, I. C., Murty, V. P., Carter, R. M., MacInnes, J., Huettel, S. A., & Adcock, R. A. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0895-11.2011 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
fMRI reveals reciprocal inhibition between social and physical cognitive domains
Jack, A. I., Dawson, A. J., Begany, K. L., Leckie, R. L., Barry, K. P., Ciccia, A. H., & Snyder, A. Z. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.061 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Complex span versus updating tasks of working memory: The gap is not that deep.
Schmiedek, F., Hildebrandt, A., Lövdén, M., Wilhelm, O., & Lindenberger, U. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0015730 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Functional maturation of the executive system during adolescence
Satterthwaite, T. D., Wolf, D. H., Erus, G., Ruparel, K., Elliott, M. A., Gennatas, E. D., Hopson, R., Jackson, C., Prabhakaran, K., Bilker, W. B., et al. (2013) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2345-13.2013 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
About the Distinction between Working Memory and Short-Term Memory
Aben, B., Stapert, S., & Blokland, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00301 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Cold pressor stress impairs performance on working memory tasks requiring executive functions in healthy young men.
Schoofs, D., Wolf, O. T., & Smeets, T. (2009) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0016980 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Distributed neural system for general intelligence revealed by lesion mapping
Gläscher, J. P., Rudrauf, D., Colom, R., Paul, L. K., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., & Adolphs, R. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0910397107 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Cognitive control interventions for depression: A systematic review of findings from training studies
Koster, E. H. W., Hoorelbeke, K., Onraedt, T., Owens, M., & Derakshan, N. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.02.002 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
NIH EXAMINER: Conceptualization and Development of an Executive Function Battery
Kramer, J. H., Mungas, D., Possin, K. L., Rankin, K. P., Boxer, A. L., Rosen, H. J., Bostrom, A., Sinha, L., Berhel, A., & Widmeyer, M. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713001094 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Data sharing in neuroimaging research
Poline, J., Breeze, J. L., Ghosh, S., Gorgolewski, K. J., Halchenko, Y. O., Hanke, M., Haselgrove, C., Helmer, K. G., Keator, D. B., Marcus, D. S., et al. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroinformatics · doi:10.3389/fninf.2012.00009 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Using near infrared spectroscopy and heart rate variability to detect mental overload
Durantin, G., Gagnon, J.-F., Tremblay, S., & Dehais, F. (2013) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2013.10.042 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Neural Correlates of Verbal Working Memory: An fMRI Meta-Analysis
Emch, M., von Bastian, C. C., & Koch, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00180 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Lesion Mapping of Cognitive Abilities Linked to Intelligence
Gläscher, J. P., Tranel, D., Paul, L. K., Rudrauf, D., Rorden, C., Hornaday, A., Grabowski, T. J., Damásio, H., & Adolphs, R. (2009) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.01.026 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Measuring fMRI reliability with the intra-class correlation coefficient
Caceres, A., Hall, D. L., Zelaya, F. O., Williams, S. C. R., & Mehta, M. A. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.035 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Linking microcircuit dysfunction to cognitive impairment: Effects of disinhibition associated with schizophrenia in a cortical working memory model
Murray, J. D., Anticevic, A., Gancsos, M., Ichinose, M., Corlett, P. R., Krystal, J. H., & Wang, X.-J. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs370 · Cited by 255 · see citing works

A coordinate-based meta-analysis of the n-back working memory paradigm using activation likelihood estimation
Wang, H., He, W., Wu, J., Zhang, J., Jin, Z., & Li, L. (2019) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2019.01.002 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Evidence for a working memory construct evolution rather than a "paradigm shift"�: A new meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies of n-back tasks
Lamp, G., Goodin, P., Laycock, R., & Sheila, C. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/conf.fnhum.2015.217.00199
Spatial and verbal working memory: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study
Koritnik, B., Kočevar, M., Knific, J., Tavčar, R., & Šprah, L. (2004) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)
Cerebellum added to Working Memory Networks revealed by Meta-analysis of Activation Likelihood Estimation of fMRI sites in n-back tasks
Crewther, S. G., Lamp, G., Goodin, P., Laycock, R., & Crewther, D. P. (2018) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/18.10.688 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Stimuli, presentation modality, and load‐specific brain activity patterns during n‐back task
Mencarelli, L., Neri, F., Momi, D., Menardi, A., Rossi, S., Rossi, A., & Santarnecchi, E. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24633 · Cited by 85 · see citing works

Authors: Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E.
Affiliations: MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
The University of Texas at San Antonio Health Science Center (US)
ORCID: Owen, Adrian M.
Laird, Angela R.
Venue: Human Brain Mapping
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2005-04-21
Volume: 25
Issue: 1
Pages: 46-59
ISSN: 1065-9471 (ISSN-L)
1097-0193
DOI: 10.1002/hbm.20131
PMC: PMC6871745
OpenAlex: W2000697043
Cited by: 3,560
References: 88
Citations by year: 2026: 175 · 2025: 212 · 2024: 242 · 2023: 206 · 2022: 200 · 2021: 234 · 2020: 204 · 2019: 230 · 2018: 243 · 2017: 218 · 2016: 195 · 2015: 207 · 2014: 191 · 2013: 181 · 2012: 161
FWCI: 24.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Human Brain Mapping (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Keywords: n-back task, working memory, functional neuroimaging, brain activation, prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, premotor cortex
MeSH terms: Brain, Diagnostic Imaging, Humans, Memory, Psychomotor Performance, Meta-Analysis as Topic

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks