The DOI matches its Crossref record; 32 of the 32 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 18 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies
Open accessAbstract
Observational studies constitute an important category of study designs. To address some investigative questions in plastic surgery, randomized controlled trials are not always indicated or ethical to conduct. Instead, observational studies may be the next best method of addressing these types of questions. Well-designed observational studies have been shown to provide results similar to those of randomized controlled trials, challenging the belief that observational studies are second rate. Cohort studies and case-control studies are two primary types of observational studies that aid in evaluating associations between diseases and exposures. In this review article, the authors describe these study designs and methodologic issues, and provide examples from the plastic surgery literature.
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In the paper
“To address some investigative questions in plastic surgery, randomized controlled trials are not always indicated or ethical to conduct.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“However, RCT methodology, which was first developed for drug trials, can be difficult to conduct for surgical investigations.3”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Chung KC Burns PB A guide to planning and executing a surgical randomized controlled trial J. Hand Surg. [Am] 2008 33 407 412 18343300 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the temporal relationship between disease occurrence and exposure cannot be established, cross-sectional studies cannot assess the cause and effect relationship.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The findings revealed that obese patients had a significantly higher incidence of donor site complications, multiple flap complications, and partial flap necrosis than normal or overweight patients.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Study Design
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [11] Spear SL Ducic I Cuoco F Effect of obesity on flap and donor-site complications in pedicled TRAM flap breast reconstruction Plast. Reconstr. Surg 2007 119 788 795 17312479
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Case-control studies are well suited to investigate rare outcomes or outcomes with a long latency period because subjects are selected from the outset by their outcome status.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Study Design
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“A significant relationship with maternal cigarette smoking and cleft lip/palate in the newborn was reported in this study (adjusted OR 1.34, 95% CI 1.36-1.76).18”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Methodological Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Chung KC Kowalski CP Kim HM Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and the risk of having a child with cleft lip/palate Plast. Reconstr. Surg 2000 105 485 491 10697150 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If too many subjects are loss to follow-up, the internal validity of the study is reduced.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Methodological Issues
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cohort studies are particularly advantageous for examining rare exposures because subjects are selected by their exposure status.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Study Design
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Well-designed observational studies have been shown to provide results similar to randomized controlled trials, challenging the belief that observational studies are second-rate.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“However, recent work has challenged this notion, showing comparable results between observational studies and RCTs.4, 5”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Benson K Hartz AJ A comparison of observational studies and randomized, controlled trials N. Engl. J. Med 2000 342 1878 1886 10861324 source
- Not checked yetcites [5] Concato J Shah N Horwitz RI Randomized, controlled trials, observational studies, and the hierarchy of research designs N. Engl. J. Med 2000 342 1887 1892 10861325 PMC1557642 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
In the paper
“A critical characteristic of subject selection is to have both the exposed and unexposed groups be selected from the same source population (Figure 4).9”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Methodological Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Elwood M Critical Appraisal of Epidemiological Studies and Clinical Trials 2007 1 570 Oxford University Press Oxford 3rd Ed
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 5
- It may state two separate claims as one. 10
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Thus a 22-item checklist was generated to enhance the reporting of observational studies across disciplines.25,26”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > The STROBE Statement: The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Statement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] von Elm E Altman DG Egger M The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies J. Clin. Epidemiol 2008 61 344 349 18313558 source
- Not checked yetcites [26] von Elm E Altman DG Egger M The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies Lancet 2007 370 1453 1457 18064739 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Contrasting with epidemiological cohort studies, case-series are descriptive studies following one small group of subjects.”
- Also stated in: § Study Design · plain
“Usually the cases are obtained from the authors' experiences, generally involve a small number of patients, and more importantly, lack a control group.12”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Study Design
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] Jenicek M Foundations of Evidence-Based Medicine 2003 1 542 Parthenon Pub. Group Boca Raton
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Study Design · plain
In the paper
“Matching is a method used in an attempt to ensure comparability between cases and controls and reduces variability and systematic differences due to background variables that are not of interest to the investigator.8”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Methodological Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Everitt BS Palmer CR Encyclopaedic Companion to Medical Statistics 2005 Hodder Arnold London
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because exposure is identified before the outcome, cohort studies have a temporal framework to assess causality and thus have the potential to provide the strongest scientific evidence.8”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Study Design
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Everitt BS Palmer CR Encyclopaedic Companion to Medical Statistics 2005 Hodder Arnold London
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These biases decrease the internal validity of the investigation and should be carefully addressed and reduced in the study design.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Methodological Issues
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The authors concluded that adverse maternal health was among the main risk factors for congenital microtia, specifically maternal disease during pregnancy (OR 5.89, 95% CI 2.36-14.72), maternal toxicity exposure during pregnancy (OR 4.76, 95% CI 1.66-13.68), and resident area, such as living near industries associated with air pollution (OR 7.00, 95% CI 2.09-23.47).16”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Study Design
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16] Zhang QG Zhang J Yu P Environmental and genetic factors associated with congenital microtia: A case-control study in Jiangsu, China, 2004 to 2007 Plast. Reconstr. Surg 2009 124 1157 1164 19935299 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, retrospective cohort studies are better indicated given the timeliness and inexpensive nature of the study design.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Study Design
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important principle is that the distribution of exposure should be the same among cases and controls; in other words, both cases and controls should stem from the same source population.”
- Also stated in: § Methodological Issues · plain
“Because the validity of the study depends upon the comparability of these two groups, cases and controls should otherwise meet the same inclusion criteria in the study.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Methodological Issues
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Methodological Issues · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Disadvantages include the need for a large sample size and the potentially long follow-up duration of the study design resulting in a costly endeavor.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Study Design
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Thus in comparison to cohort studies, case-control studies are quick, relatively inexpensive to implement, require comparatively fewer subjects, and allow for multiple exposures or risk factors to be assessed for one outcome (Table 4).2,9”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Study Design
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Hulley SB Cummings SR Browner WS Designing Clinical Research: An Epidemiologic Approach 2001 1 336 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Philadelphia 2nd Ed
- Not checked yetcites [9] Elwood M Critical Appraisal of Epidemiological Studies and Clinical Trials 2007 1 570 Oxford University Press Oxford 3rd Ed
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A general rule of thumb requires that the loss to follow-up rate not exceed 20% of the sample.6”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > COHORT STUDY > Methodological Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] Merril RM Timmreck TC Introduction to Epidemiology 2006 1 342 Jones and Bartlett Publishers Mississauga, Ontario 4th Ed
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, 18 of the checklist items are common to all three types of observational studies, and 4 items are specific to each of the 3 specific study designs.”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > The STROBE Statement: The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Statement
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This method increases the “statistical power” of the investigation by increasing the sample size. The precision of the findings may improve by having up to about three or four controls per case.21-23”
§ Observational Studies: Cohort and Case-Control Studies > CASE-CONTROL STUDIES > Methodological Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Ury HK Efficiency of case-control studies with multiple controls per case: Continuous or dichotomous data Biometrics 1975 31 643 649 1100136 source
- Not matchedcites [22] Bruce N Pope D Stanistreet D Quantitative Methods for Health Research 2008 1 529 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd West Sussex, England
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [23] Woodward M Epidemiology: Study Design and Data Analysis 2005 1 849 Chapman & Hall/CRC London 2nd Ed
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The influence of recall or information bias was thought to be minimal due to the prospective design [49].”
From The Modified A-DIVA Scale as a Predictive Tool for Prospective Identification of Adult Patients at Risk of a Difficult Intravenous Access: A Multicenter Validation Study (2019) · cites this paper as [49]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Adjusted odds ratio lies outside its reported confidence interval
MinorThe reported point estimate of 1.34 is below the lower bound of its reported 95% confidence interval, 1.36.
“adjusted OR 1.34”
“95% CI 1.36-1.76”
Citations
Cites
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Self-citation
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Mathew, G., Agha, R., Albrecht, J., Goel, P., Mukherjee, I., Pai, P., Dcruz, A. K., Nixon, I. J., Klappenbach, R., Enam, S. A., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2021.106165 · Cited by 2,144
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Metadata
- Authors
- Song, J. W., & Chung, K. C.
- Affiliations
- Michigan Medicine (US)
- Venue
- Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 126
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2234-2242
- ISSN
- 0032-1052 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2998589
- OpenAlex
- W2033465810
- Semantic Scholar
- ee4ce5ab25a1825e160dd212939027f214345425
- Cited by
- 948
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 115 · 2023: 106 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 104 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (K24AR053120, F32AR058105)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Methodologies in Health Research and Practice
- Keywords
- observational study design, cohort studies, case-control study, plastic surgery research, exposure-disease association
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Prospective Studies, Retrospective Studies, Cohort Studies, Bias, Case-Control Studies, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Evidence-Based Medicine, Plastic Surgery Procedures
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