The conservation value of South East Asia's highly degraded forests: evidence from leaf-litter ants
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South East Asia is widely regarded as a centre of threatened biodiversity owing to extensive logging and forest conversion to agriculture. In particular, forests degraded by repeated rounds of intensive logging are viewed as having little conservation value and are afforded meagre protection from conversion to oil palm. Here, we determine the biological value of such heavily degraded forests by comparing leaf-litter ant communities in unlogged (natural) and twice-logged forests in Sabah, Borneo. We accounted for impacts of logging on habitat heterogeneity by comparing species richness and composition at four nested spatial scales, and examining how species richness was partitioned across the landscape in each habitat. We found that twice-logged forest had fewer species occurrences, lower species richness at small spatial scales and altered species composition compared with natural forests. However, over 80 per cent of species found in unlogged forest were detected within twice-logged forest. Moreover, greater species turnover among sites in twice-logged forest resulted in identical species richness between habitats at the largest spatial scale. While two intensive logging cycles have negative impacts on ant communities, these degraded forests clearly provide important habitat for numerous species and preventing their conversion to oil palm and other crops should be a conservation priority.
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In Indonesia, very low-productivity grasslands and logged forests are both categorized as degraded despite huge differences in their current use and the environmental impacts of conversion.
“in Indonesia, very low-productivity grasslands and logged forests are both categorized as degraded despite huge differences in their current use and the environmental impacts of conversion (Edwards et al., 2011;Fairhurst & McLaughlin, 2009;Woodcock et al., 2011).”
From Mapping the world's degraded lands (2015) · cites this paper as Woodcock et al., 2011
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMinimizing the biodiversity impact of Neotropical oil palm development
Gilroy, J. J., Prescott, G. W., Cárdenas, J., González‐del‐Pliego, P., Sánchez‐Restrepo, A. F., Rojas-Murcia, L. E., Uribe, C. A. M., Haugaasen, T., & Edwards, D. P. (2014) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.12696 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Gaveau, D., Curran, L. M., Paoli, G. D., Carlson, K. M., Wells, P. L., Rimba, A. B., Ratnasari, D., & Leader‐Williams, N. (2012) · Conservation Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2011.00220.x · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Although forest degradation has relatively lower impacts on the overall maintenance of biodiversity than deforestation (Woodcock et al. 2001; Meijaard & Sheil 2008; Edwards et al. 2011; Gibson et al. 2011) it remains an important anthropogenic disturbance that affects large tropical forest areas (Broadbent et al.”
BackgroundReduced‐impact logging and biodiversity conservation: a case study from Borneo
Edwards, D. P., Woodcock, P., Edwards, F. A., Larsen, T. H., Hsu, W. W., Benedick, S., & Wilcove, D. S. (2012) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1890/11-1362.1 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Gray, C. L., Lewis, O. T., Chung, A. Y. C., & Fayle, T. M. (2014) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12371 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Limiting the expansion of oil palm onto forested land is very important given the high biodiversity value of this habitat (Edwards et al. 2011; Gibson et al. 2011; Woodcock et al. 2011), but it is also possible that species and processes can be maintained within plantations.”
BackgroundDisentangling the Diversity of Arboreal Ant Communities in Tropical Forest Trees
Klimeš, P., Fibich, P., Idigel, C., & Rimandai, M. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117853 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“This is surprising as previous studies usually found much larger differences in alpha diversity both for arboreal and litter ants between mature and disturbed forest habitats [52,85].”
ResultIndonesia’s REDD+ pact: Saving imperilled forests or business as usual?
Edwards, D. P., Koh, L. P., & Laurance, W. F. (2011) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.10.028 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Does Indonesia's REDD+ moratorium on new concessions spare imminently threatened forests?
Sloan, S., Edwards, D. P., & Laurance, W. F. (2012) · Conservation Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2012.00233.x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Furthermore, logged forests contain relatively high biodiversity (Cannon et al. 1998; Meijaard & Sheil 2008; Berry et al. 2010; Edwards et al. 2011b; Woodcock et al. 2011) and are a critical component of conservation strategies within Southeast Asia (Fisher et al.”
BackgroundWoodcock, P., Edwards, D. P., Newton, R. J., Khen, C. V., Bottrell, S. H., & Hamer, K. C. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060756 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“[45], our findings provide further evidence for anthropogenic”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialUse of meta-analysis in forest biodiversity research: key challenges and considerations
Spake, R., & Doncaster, C. P. (2017) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2017.05.059 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Low intensity selective logging can have little impact after a single cycle, while repeated logging events can exacerbate biodiversity impacts (Gibson et al., 2011; Woodcock et al., 2011; Edwards et al., 2011; Lindenmayer and Laurance, 2012).”
BackgroundBernard, H., Baking, E. L., Giordano, A. J., Wearn, O. R., & Ahmad, A. H. (2014) · Mammal Study · doi:10.3106/041.039.0303 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“2011), but despite the high level of degradation in logged-over forests, these forests have often been found to retain considerable conservation value to overall biodiversity, as well as species of high conservation concern (Berry et al. 2010; Edwards et al. 2011; Woodcock et al. 2011; Payne and Davies 2013; Struebig…”
BackgroundSustainable Management in Crop Monocultures: The Impact of Retaining Forest on Oil Palm Yield
Edwards, F. A., Edwards, D. P., Sloan, S., & Hamer, K. C. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091695 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“However, this seems unlikely because previous work in the region has shown the retention of high levels of biodiversity, including most primary forest species [46,68,69], and high functional diversity [70,71] within contiguous blocks of logged forests.”
BackgroundWoodcock, P., Edwards, D. P., Newton, R. J., Edwards, F. A., Khen, C. V., Bottrell, S. H., & Hamer, K. C. (2012) · Die Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s00114-012-0896-2 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“We ensured a minimum distance between transects of 0.5 km, although logistical constraints meant that distances between transects ranged from 0.5 to 3.2 km (mean01.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDhandapani, S., Ritz, K., Evers, S., Yule, C. M., & Sjögersten, S. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.046 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Tree diversity promotes predator but not omnivore ants in a subtropical C hinese forest
Staab, M., Schuldt, A., Aßmann, T., & Klein, A. (2014) · Ecological Entomology · doi:10.1111/een.12143 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“By contrast, for epigeic ants, even degraded forests have been shown to maintain high species richness (e.g. Belshaw & Bolton, 1993; Woodcock et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAhuatzin, D. A., Corro, E. J., Aguirre‐Jaimes, A., Valenzuela, J., Feitosa, R. M., Ribeiro, M. C., López‐Acosta, J. C., Coates, R. I., & Dáttilo, W. (2019) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-019-01712-z · Cited by 37 · see citing works
García-Martínez, M. A., Valenzuela, J., Escobar, F., López‐Barrera, F., & Castaño‐Meneses, G. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0172464 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Wearn, O. R., Carbone, C., Rowcliffe, J. M., Bernard, H., & Ewers, R. M. (2016) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1890/15-1363 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Prescott, G. W., Edwards, D. P., & Foster, W. A. (2015) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.1462 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“The palms we sampled were at least 30 m apart, and following Woodcock et al. (2011), we treated them as statistically independent.”
MethodKlimeš, P. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316671825.003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Tůma, J., Fleiss, S., Eggleton, P., Frouz, J., Klimeš, P., Lewis, O. T., Yusah, K. M., & Fayle, T. M. (2019) · Applied Soil Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2019.07.002 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“In South East Asia, primary forests often undergo multiple rounds of logging before conversion to oil palm plantation (Woodcock et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAnt community structure during forest succession in a subtropical forest in South-East China
Staab, M., Schuldt, A., Aßmann, T., Bruelheide, H., & Klein, A. (2014) · Acta Oecologica · doi:10.1016/j.actao.2014.10.003 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Ofori-Boateng, C., Oduro, W., Hillers, A., Norris, K. J., Oppong, S. K., Adum, G. B., & Rödel, M. (2012) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2012.00887.x · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Changes in species richness and diversity have been observed following selective logging, with both increases and decreases being reported with almost the same frequency (Mason 1996, Cannon et al. 1998, Whitman et al. 1998, Dumbrell & Hill 2005, Peters et al. 2006, Woodcock et al. 2011).”
BackgroundEdwards, D. P., Backhouse, A. R., Wheeler, C., Khen, C. V., & Hamer, K. C. (2011) · Journal of Insect Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10841-011-9444-1 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The Bornean leaf-litter ants are almost exclusively carnivores (Woodcock et al. 2011), whilst Bornean arboreal ants are about 65% herbivores (sap feeders) and 35% carnivores (Davidson et al. 2003), and guilds were thus assigned to understorey ants in these proportions.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEffect of tropical forest disturbance on the competitive interactions within a diverse ant community
Gray, R. E. J., Ewers, R. M., Boyle, M. J. W., Chung, A. Y. C., & Gill, R. J. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23272-y · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Konopik, O., Gray, C. L., Grafe, T. U., Steffan-Dewenter, I. D., & Fayle, T. M. (2014) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2014.10.011 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“This contrasts with previous observations that ant fauna are less species rich in degraded tropical forest compared to undisturbed habitats, both in terms of ground foraging (Brühl and Eltz, 2009; Woodcock et al., 2013) and arboreal communities (Klimes et al., 2012; Widodo et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialUsing Habitat Characteristics to Predict Faunal Diversity in Tropical Production Forests
Lam, T. Y., Fletcher, C. D., Ramage, B. S., Doll, H. M., Joann, C. L., Nur‐Zati, A. M., Butod, E., Kassim, A. R., Harrison, R. D., & Potts, M. D. (2013) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/btp.12069 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The impact of secondary forest regeneration on ground-dwelling ant communities in the Tropical Andes
Hethcoat, M. G., King, B. J., Castiblanco, F. F., Ortiz-Sepulveda, C., Achiardi, F. C. P., Edwards, F. A., Medina, C. A., Gilroy, J. J., Haugaasen, T., & Edwards, D. P. (2019) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-019-04497-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Marques, T., & Schoereder, J. H. (2013) · Austral Ecology · doi:10.1111/aec.12046 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Singh, M., Evans, D. H., Chevance, J., Tan, B. S., Wiggins, N., Kong, L., & Sakhoeun, S. (2019) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.7841 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Tawatao, N., Lucey, J. M., Senior, M., Benedick, S., Khen, C. V., Hill, J. K., & Hamer, K. C. (2014) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-014-0768-5 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“To ensure efficient sampling of ants, samples were taken only after three or more days without heavy rain (Woodcock et al. 2011).”
Abundance of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and the functional groups in two different habitats
Triyogo, A., Budiadi, Widyastuti, S. M., Subrata, S. A., & Budi, S. S. (2020) · Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity · doi:10.13057/biodiv/d210535 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The recovery of ground ant diversity in secondary Lacandon tropical forests
Rocha‐Ortega, M., & Favila, M. E. (2013) · Journal of Insect Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10841-013-9597-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Fisher, B., Edwards, D. P., & Wilcove, D. S. (2013) · Forest Policy and Economics · doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2013.05.006 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In recent years a number of studies have shown that logged forests retain a large proportion of the species found in primary forests, across several taxa (Meijaard et al., 2006; Berry et al., 2010; Edwards et al., 2011b; Woodcock et al., 2011; Gibson et al., 2011; Putz et al., 2012).”
BackgroundPfeiffer, M., & Mezger, D. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040729 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“[14], who worked in northern Borneo, reported ‘‘high’’ beta diversity between their plots, especially in logged forest.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelective logging intensity in an East African rain forest predicts reductions in ant diversity
Ross, S. R. P. ‐., Garcia, F. H., Fischer, G., & Peters, M. K. (2018) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/btp.12569 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The future of South East Asian rainforests in a changing landscape and climate
Hector, A., Fowler, D., Nussbaum, R., Weilenmann, M., & Walsh, R. P. D. (2011) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0174 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Deforestation in Southeast Asia
Turner, E. C., & Snaddon, J. L. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820509-9.00004-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Majeed, W., Khawaja, M., & Rana, N. (2021) · Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity · doi:10.13057/biodiv/d220533 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kimber, A., & Eggleton, P. (2017) · Biotropica · doi:10.1111/btp.12517 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…to increase in forests at intermediate levels of disturbance in some studies (e.g., Graham et al. 2009, Luke et al. 2014), ant species richness is typically higher in old growth forests compared with logged forests in the tropics (Widodo et al. 2004, Woodcock et al. 2011, Ewers et al. 2015).”
BackgroundDh, S., & apani (2015) · Journal of Ecosystem & Ecography · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Clements, G. R., Rostro‐García, S., Kamler, J. F., Liang, S. H., & Hashim, A. K. B. A. (2020) · Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity · doi:10.13057/biodiv/d220133 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“However, selective logging in concessions not converted to plantations can retain much of their value for biodiversity (Berry et al. 2010; Woodcock et al. 2011).”
BackgroundWang, S. X., Guo, H., Wang, X., Fan, W., & Duan, R. (2013) · Nordic Journal of Botany · doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.2013.00268.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Itioka, T., Takano, K. T., Kishimoto‐Yamada, K., Tzuchiya, T., Ohshima, Y., Katsuyama, R., Yago, M., Yata, O., Nakagawa, M., & Nakashizuka, T. (2014) · Journal of Forest Research · doi:10.1007/s10310-014-0444-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Indeed, many studies have estimated the effects of forest fragmentation, degradation due to selective logging, and deforestation on arthropod diversity in the tropics (e.g., Willott 1999; Vasconcelos et al. 2000; Willott et al. 2000; Davis et al. 2001; Shahabuddin et al. 2005; Barlow et al. 2007; Chazdon et al. 2009;…”
BackgroundAzhar, B., Norhisham, A. R., Sanusi, R., Lechner, A. M., Ashraf, M., Zaki, W. M. W., & Jafni, F. (2024) · Insect Conservation and Diversity · doi:10.1111/icad.12724 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Flora and fauna are often displaced or destroyed due to habitat modification, thus reducing biodiversity and enhancing the likelihood of extinction (Brühl & Eltz, 2010; Fayle et al., 2010; Swift et al., 2004; Woodcock et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPhilip, A. J., Fayle, T. M., & Yusah, K. M. (2018) · Journal of Tropical Biology & Conservation (JTBC) · doi:10.51200/jtbc.v15i0.1484 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Nooten, S. S., & Guénard, B. (2022) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/s00442-022-05276-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Walsh, R. P. D., Nussbaum, R., Fowler, D., Weilenmann, M., & Hector, A. (2011) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0179 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Boyle, M. J. W., Williamson, J., Rossiter, S. J., Pfeifer, M., Drinkwater, R., Woon, J. S., Ashton, L. A., van Breugel, M., Eggleton, P., Evans, T. A., et al. (2025) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.113936 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Initial terrestrial vertebrate diversity assessment in upland Cavite, Philippines
(2019) · Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology · doi:10.26757/pjsb.2018b12007 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Triyogo, A., Budiadi, B., Widyastuti, S., Budi, S. S., & Varanita, S. (2019) · Jurnal Ilmu Kehutanan · doi:10.22146/jik.52364 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Deforestation in Southeast Asia
Turner, E. C., & Snaddon, J. L. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394847-2.00019-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Forest fragmentation in oil palm plantations: impacts on biodiversity and options for mitigation
Bakewell, D., & Donysius, M. (2014) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assessing biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in fragmented tropical landscapes
Senior, M. J. M. (2014) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Integrating ecosystem services into the tropical commodity value chain : cocoa, soy and palm oil
den Berg, J. V., Ingram, V. J., Judge, L. O., & Arets, E. J. M. M. (2014) · Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling
The resilience of tropical forest invertebrates to microclimate change
Boyle, M. (2019) · Spiral (Imperial College London) · doi:10.25560/83404
Ant Community Structure in Secondary Logged Forest of Malua Forest Reserve, Sabah, Borneo
Koid, Q.-Q., Wong, R.-Y., Gabriel, G., & Yusah, K. M. (2021) · Journal of Tropical Biology & Conservation (JTBC) · doi:10.51200/jtbc.v18i.3469
“Using the Winkler method alone, Woodcock et al. (2011) recorded 196 species of leaf litter ants and found no difference in terms of species richness between unlogged and logged forests in the Ulu-Segama Malua region.”
Method
- Authors
- Woodcock, P., Edwards, D. P., Fayle, T. M., Newton, R. J., Khen, C. V., Bottrell, S. H., & Hamer, K. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- Natural History Museum (GB)
- School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
- Sabah Forestry Department (MY)
- Corresponding author
- Woodcock, Paul
- Venue
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences
- Publisher
- The Royal Society
- Published
- 2011-11-27
- Volume
- 366
- Issue
- 1582
- Pages
- 3256-3264
- ISSN
- 0962-8436 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-2970
- PMC
- PMC3179628
- OpenAlex
- W2123861200
- Cited by
- 74
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 12.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ResearchOnline - JCU (James Cook University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Insect and Arachnid Ecology and Behavior
- Keywords
- degraded forest, leaf litter ants, ant communities, species richness, species composition, species turnover, habitat heterogeneity, spatial scale, oil palm conversion, forest conservation, Borneo, Sabah, tropical forest biodiversity
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Ants, Conservation of Natural Resources, Malaysia, Population Density, Population Dynamics, Species Specificity, Trees, Forestry, Ecosystem, Plant Leaves, Arecaceae
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