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PreprintCited by 3Genetics, Aging, and Longevity in Model OrganismsInvertebrate Immune Response MechanismsPhysiological and biochemical adaptations

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Warmer temperature accelerates senescence by modifying the aging-dependent changes in the mosquito transcriptome, altering immunity, metabolism, and DNA repair

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Martin, Lindsay E., Barr, Jordyn S., Cartailler, Jean-Philippe, Shrestha, Shristi, Estévez-Lao, Tania Y., Hillyer, Julián F.·2025·Immunity & Ageing
DOI 10.1101/2025.10.27.684792PMC PMC12781269

Preprint — published as 10.1186/s12979-025-00551-7 · Paper page

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Abstract

Background: Global environmental temperatures are rising, which is increasing the body temperature of mosquitoes. This increase in body temperature is accelerating senescence, thereby weakening immune responses and reproductive processes, and shortening lifespan. To determine how warmer temperature and aging, individually and interactively, shape the transcriptome of the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae , we conducted RNA-sequencing and network-analysis in naive and immune-induced mosquitoes that had been reared at 27C, 30C or 32C and were 1, 5, 10 or 15 days into adulthood. Results: We demonstrate that immune induction, warmer temperature, and aging alter the transcriptome. Notably, the transcriptome of 1-day-old mosquitoes is pronouncedly different from older mosquitoes, and importantly, warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes to accelerate senescence. For example, warmer temperature amplifies the aging-dependent decrease in immune gene expression but dampens both the aging-dependent decrease in metabolic gene expression and the aging-dependent increase in DNA repair gene expression. Conclusions: Altogether, warmer temperature accelerates senescence, shaping the transcriptome in ways that alter the mosquitos ability to fight infection and survive in a warming environment.

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Fig. 1 Immune treatment, temperature, and adult age shape the mosquito’s transcriptome. A Experimental overview to assess the individual and interactive effects of warmer temperature (27 °C, 30 °C, or 32 °C) and aging (1, 5, 10, or 15 days) on the transcriptome of naïve and immune-induced Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. B Principal component analysis across all samples, color-coded by immune treatment (left panel), temperature (middle panel), or age (right panel). A global PERMANOVA analysis was performed on the top 500 most variable genes, followed by marginal testing for contribution of each factor
Fig. 1 Immune treatment, temperature, and adult age shape the mosquito’s transcriptome. A Experimental overview to assess the individual and interactive effects of warmer temperature (27 °C, 30 °C, or 32 °C) and aging (1, 5, 10, or 15 days) on the transcriptome of naïve and immune-induced Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. B Principal component analysis across all samples, color-coded by immune treatment (left panel), temperature (middle panel), or age (right panel). A global PERMANOVA analysis was performed on the top 500 most variable genes, followed by marginal testing for contribution of each factorCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 Immune treatment, temperature, and age have unique effects on different functional parts of the mosquito’s transcriptome. A Diagram illustrating the outcome of iterative weighted gene co-expression network analysis (iWGCNA), which identified 22 modules of interconnected genes (1–22) that further clustered into 6 metamodules (A-F). Lines between modules indicate interconnectivity and the thicker lines indicate a stronger connectivity. B Heatmap of trait-correlation analysis illustrating the correlation between each module and each trait (e.g. temperature) at each level of the trait (e.g. 27 °C, 30 °C, or 32 °C). Naïve and immune-induced levels of the immune status trait are abbreviated as Nv and Im, respectively. Each box depicts the correlation value on the first line and its p-value on the second line. Positive correlations are red and negative correlations are blue, with stronger correlations having more intense colors. Modules were arranged using unsupervised hierarchical clustering based on Euclidian distances, with shorter distances indicating more similar expression patterns. C-E Over-representation analysis of Module 22 (C), Module 16 (D), and Module 19 (E), where gene ratio (enrichment) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot size indicates the number of genes enriched within each category and dot color indicates the p-value (adjusted p < 0.05)
Fig. 2 Immune treatment, temperature, and age have unique effects on different functional parts of the mosquito’s transcriptome. A Diagram illustrating the outcome of iterative weighted gene co-expression network analysis (iWGCNA), which identified 22 modules of interconnected genes (1–22) that further clustered into 6 metamodules (A-F). Lines between modules indicate interconnectivity and the thicker lines indicate a stronger connectivity. B Heatmap of trait-correlation analysis illustrating the correlation between each module and each trait (e.g. temperature) at each level of the trait (e.g. 27 °C, 30 °C, or 32 °C). Naïve and immune-induced levels of the immune status trait are abbreviated as Nv and Im, respectively. Each box depicts the correlation value on the first line and its p-value on the second line. Positive correlations are red and negative correlations are blue, with stronger correlations having more intense colors. Modules were arranged using unsupervised hierarchical clustering based on Euclidian distances, with shorter distances indicating more similar expression patterns. C-E Over-representation analysis of Module 22 (C), Module 16 (D), and Module 19 (E), where gene ratio (enrichment) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot size indicates the number of genes enriched within each category and dot color indicates the p-value (adjusted p < 0.05)CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 Immune induction upregulates, downregulates or has a bidirectional effect on the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05), and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue)
Fig. 3 Immune induction upregulates, downregulates or has a bidirectional effect on the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05), and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue)CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 4 Increasing the temperature from 27 °C to 32 °C upregulates, downregulates or has a bidirectional effect on the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05) and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue). Left and right gene columns display outcomes in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes, respectively
Fig. 4 Increasing the temperature from 27 °C to 32 °C upregulates, downregulates or has a bidirectional effect on the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05) and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue). Left and right gene columns display outcomes in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes, respectivelyCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 5 Aging from 1 to 15 days upregulates, downregulates or has a bidirectional effect on the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05), and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue). Left and right gene columns display outcomes in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes, respectively
Fig. 5 Aging from 1 to 15 days upregulates, downregulates or has a bidirectional effect on the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05), and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue). Left and right gene columns display outcomes in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes, respectivelyCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 6 Early aging (1 to 5 days) and late aging (10 to 15 days) have different effects on the regulation of the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05) and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue). Columns display outcomes in naïve (left) and immune-induced (right) mosquitoes, with each column split into early aging and late aging
Fig. 6 Early aging (1 to 5 days) and late aging (10 to 15 days) have different effects on the regulation of the expression of genes in distinct functional categories. Diagram illustrates the outcome of Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, where normalized enrichment score (NES) is on the horizontal axis and gene ontology (GO) term is on the vertical axis. Dot sizes indicate the adjusted p-value (p < 0.05) and dot colors indicate positive enrichment (red) versus negative enrichment (blue). Columns display outcomes in naïve (left) and immune-induced (right) mosquitoes, with each column split into early aging and late agingCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 7 The interaction between warmer temperature and aging shapes biological processes within the mosquito. A Venn diagram illustrating the number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) affected by the interaction between temperature and age in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes. B-C Heatmaps illustrating mRNA abundance of genes grouped by k-means clustering in naïve (B) and immune-induced (C) mosquitoes, including the enriched functional categories in each cluster. Interaction-based DEGs were grouped by expression pattern similarity into 10 clusters. Z-scores indicate mRNA abundance scaled across samples, and color indicates abundance: higher is red whereas lower is blue. More intense colors depict larger absolute value of the z-score
Fig. 7 The interaction between warmer temperature and aging shapes biological processes within the mosquito. A Venn diagram illustrating the number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) affected by the interaction between temperature and age in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes. B-C Heatmaps illustrating mRNA abundance of genes grouped by k-means clustering in naïve (B) and immune-induced (C) mosquitoes, including the enriched functional categories in each cluster. Interaction-based DEGs were grouped by expression pattern similarity into 10 clusters. Z-scores indicate mRNA abundance scaled across samples, and color indicates abundance: higher is red whereas lower is blue. More intense colors depict larger absolute value of the z-scoreCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 8 Warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes in immune gene expression. A-H Variance stabilized transformation (VST) of mRNA abundance illustrating the expression of immune genes in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes. Box plots display the minimum and maximum, inner quartile range (box), median (horizontal line in box), and outliers (circles). Box plot color depicts rearing temperature. The same information is presented in tabular format in Additional File 9: Table S2
Fig. 8 Warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes in immune gene expression. A-H Variance stabilized transformation (VST) of mRNA abundance illustrating the expression of immune genes in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes. Box plots display the minimum and maximum, inner quartile range (box), median (horizontal line in box), and outliers (circles). Box plot color depicts rearing temperature. The same information is presented in tabular format in Additional File 9: Table S2CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 9 Warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes in the expression of genes involved in metabolism and DNA repair. A-H Variance stabilized transformation (VST) of mRNA abundance illustrating the expression of genes involved in metabolism and DNA repair in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes. Box plots display the minimum and maximum, inner quartile range (box), median (horizontal line in box), and outliers (circles). Box plot color depicts rearing temperature. The same information is presented in tabular format in Additional File 10: Table S3
Fig. 9 Warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes in the expression of genes involved in metabolism and DNA repair. A-H Variance stabilized transformation (VST) of mRNA abundance illustrating the expression of genes involved in metabolism and DNA repair in naïve and immune-induced mosquitoes. Box plots display the minimum and maximum, inner quartile range (box), median (horizontal line in box), and outliers (circles). Box plot color depicts rearing temperature. The same information is presented in tabular format in Additional File 10: Table S3CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 10 Warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes in the mosquito transcriptome. Red arrows indicate upregulation, blue arrows indicate downregulation, and black dash indicates no change
Fig. 10 Warmer temperature modifies the aging-dependent changes in the mosquito transcriptome. Red arrows indicate upregulation, blue arrows indicate downregulation, and black dash indicates no changeCC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Martin, L. E., Barr, J. S., Cartailler, J.-P., Shrestha, S., Estévez-Lao, T. Y., & Hillyer, J. F.
Affiliations
Vanderbilt University (US)
Corresponding author
Hillyer, Julián F.
ORCID
Venue
Immunity & Ageing
Publisher
openRxiv
Published
2025-10-27
Volume
23
Issue
1
Pages
1-1
ISSN
1742-4933 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1101/2025.10.27.684792
PMC
PMC12781269
OpenAlex
W4417321364
Cited by
3
References
1
Citations by year
2026: 3
FWCI
0.95
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Immunity & Ageing (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
U.S. National Science Foundation (1936843, Graduate Research Fellowship)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Aging › Genetics, Aging, and Longevity in Model Organisms
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Invertebrate Immune Response Mechanisms
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Physiological and biochemical adaptations
Keywords
Anopheles gambiae, aging, high temperature, transcriptome, immune gene expression, metabolic gene expression, DNA repair, immune induction, climate change, malaria vectors, lifespan

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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How to cite

Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.

This page
CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Warmer temperature accelerates senescence by modifying the aging-dependent changes in the mosquito transcriptome, altering immunity, metabolism, and DNA repair. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1101/2025.10.27.684792
The paper
Martin, L. E., Barr, J. S., Cartailler, J.-P., Shrestha, S., Estévez-Lao, T. Y., & Hillyer, J. F. (2025). Warmer temperature accelerates senescence by modifying the aging-dependent changes in the mosquito transcriptome, altering immunity, metabolism, and DNA repair. Immunity & Ageing. https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.10.27.684792