Stress administered prior to encoding impairs neutral but enhances emotional long-term episodic memories.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Females reported higher self-reported anxiety than males during and after the stressor.

“females reported significantly higher levels of self-reported anxiety than males during and after the stressor (t(74) = 2.4, P <0.02; t(74) = 2.1, P <0.05).”

May combine two claims.

Exposure to the stressor increased self-reported anxiety immediately after and during the stressor, but stressed and control participants did not differ at baseline or the return visit.

“exposure to the stressor elevated self-reported anxiety levels immediately after (t(74) = 8.2, P <0.0001), and during (i.e., “how did you feel during the stressor”) (t(74) = 14.0,P <0.0001) the stressor.”

• Also stated in: § Subjective stress · plain

  “Stressed subjects did not differ from controls, however, at baseline or the return visit (t(74) = 0.37, P = 0.71; t(74) = 0.48, P = 0.63).”

May combine two claims.

Stressed participants falsely reported more neutral slides than controls, while the groups did not differ in falsely reported emotional slides.

“Follow-up t-tests revealed significantly more falsely reported neutral slides in the stress group than in the control group (t(36) = 4.7, P <0.05).”

• Also stated in: § False memory · plain

  “There was no difference between groups for falsely reported emotional slides (P = 0.21).”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In cued recall, stress increased recall of slides from the emotional story relative to controls, while the decrease in recall of neutral story slides in the stress group was only a trend.

“stressed subjects recalled more of the slides from the emotional story a week later (58%), but fewer of the slides from the neutral story (36%), compared with the control group (44% and 42%, respectively).”

May combine two claims.

False memories correlated positively with cortisol levels overall, and this correlation was stronger among cortisol responders.

“a positive correlation emerged between false memories and cortisol levels (r (76) = 0.23, P <0.05)-an effect which became even stronger when we analyzed cortisol responders separately (those secreting 12 nmoml/L or more in response to the TSST, [r (15) = 0.57, P <0.03, Fig. 5])”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In free recall, stress increased recall of the emotional story and decreased recall of the neutral story compared with controls.

“while the controls showed similar recall of both stories”

May combine two claims.

One week after stress exposure, the emotional story was recalled better than the neutral story overall, and phase 2, which contained the emotional slides, was recalled better than phases 1 and 3.

“demonstrating that 1 wk after stress exposure, the emotional story was better recalled than the neutral story overall, and that phase 2 (the phase containing the emotional slides) was better recalled than phases 1 and 3.”

May combine two claims.

In the stress group, salivary alpha-amylase, an index of catecholamines, was higher after the TSST than before, while the control group showed lower levels at the second time point; baseline levels did not differ between groups.

“participants in the stress group had significantly higher catecholamine levels following TSST exposure (Time 2) than they did before exposure (Time 1) (Ms = 94.9U/mL vs. 79.0U/mL; t(35) = 3.5, P = 0.003).”

• Also stated in: § Catecholamines · plain

  “participants in the control group had significantly lower catecholamine levels at Time 2 than at Time 1 (Ms = 92.2U/mL vs. 81.6U/mL; t(39) = 2.6, P = 0.01)”

• Also stated in: § Catecholamines · plain

  “the stress and control groups did not differ in their ␣amylase values at the Time 1 baseline (Ms = 79.0U/mL vs. 92.2U/mL, P = 0.17).”

May combine two claims.

In recognition memory, stressed participants were impaired for the neutral slide show and enhanced for the emotional slide show relative to controls, who performed similarly on both stories.

“stressed subjects' recognition memory was both significantly impaired for the neutral slide show (t(36) = 5.1, P <0.05) and significantly enhanced for the emotional slide show (t(36) = 4.5, P <0.05), relative to control subjects, who showed similar scores on both stories”

May combine two claims.

The TSST elevated heart rate relative to the control group during speech preparation, the speech task, and after the TSST.

“exposure to the TSST significantly elevated heart rate over that of the control group (baseline: t(64) = 1.6, ns; speech preparation: t(64) = 4.8, P <0.001; speech task: t(64) = 7.8, P <0.001; post-TSST: t(64) = 3.6, P <0.001)”

May combine two claims.

The Trier Social Stress Test significantly raised salivary cortisol in the stress group compared with controls immediately after and 30 minutes after the stressor, with no group difference at baseline or the 1-week return.

“stress exposure significantly elevated cortisol levels immediately after the stressor and 30-min after the stressor (t(74) = 3.2, P = 0.002; t(74) = 3.1, P = 0.003, respectively).”

• Also stated in: § Cortisol levels · plain

  “The stress group did not differ from the control group, however, either at baseline or at the return visit.”

May combine two claims.

Stress administered before encoding enhanced long-term memory for emotional material and impaired long-term memory for neutral material relative to a no-stress control condition.

“The stress manipulation disrupted long-term memory for a neutral episode, but facilitated long-term memory for an equivalent emotional episode compared with a control condition.”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · plain

  “Memory for emotionally arousing material was enhanced by the pre-training stress exposure, while memory for closely matched neutral material was impaired.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The emotional and neutral slide shows were equivalent except for emotional arousal.

May combine two claims.

Stressed participants falsely recalled more slides than controls, but only for the neutral story.

“Stressed subjects falsely recalled more slides than control subjects, but only for the neutral story.”

May combine two claims.

Stress before encoding enhances memory for an emotional event but disrupts memory for a carefully matched neutral event.

“In summary, we have demonstrated that stress administered before encoding can enhance memory for an emotional event but disrupt memory for a carefully matched neutral event.”

May combine two claims.

The study found that stress improved recognition of the emotional story and worsened recognition of the neutral story compared with control.

“Stress resulted in better recognition of the emotional story, but poorer recognition of the neutral story, compared with the control condition.”

May combine two claims.

The study found that stress increased recall of emotional story elements and decreased recall of neutral story elements compared with control.

“Stress resulted in recall of more elements from the emotional story, but fewer elements from the neutral story, compared with the control condition.”

May combine two claims.

The study found no overall advantage for emotional over neutral stories in memory; the emotional enhancement appeared only in the stress group relative to controls.

“The first is the fact that we did not obtain generally better memory for emotional stories than the neutral ones (the effect only emerged in the stress relative to control group).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Glucocorticoids encourage a consolidation mode accompanied by impaired retrieval.

“As Roozendaal (2002) has suggested, GCs encourage a consolidation mode that is accompanied by impaired retrieval.”

• cites Roozendaal (2002)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When stress is given before retrieval, memory is usually impaired irrespective of whether the material is emotional.

“Stress administered before retrieval generally produces memory impairment, regardless of stimulus emotionality.”

• cites Kuhlmann et al. (2005a,b)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Amygdala-hippocampus interactions strengthen encoding and consolidation of emotionally arousing material.

“Considerable research has shown that interactions between the amygdala and hippocampus enhance encoding and consolidation of emotionally arousing information (Cahill 2000;Canli et al. 2000;Packard and Cahill 2001;Phelps 2004).”

• cites Cahill 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Canli et al. 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Packard and Cahill 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Although high cortisol reduces hippocampal function, the hippocampus in interaction with the amygdala appears capable of processing and storing emotional memories.

“Thus, although hippocampal function is reduced by high cortisol levels (de Quervain et al. 2003), the hippocampus nonetheless, in its interactions with the amygdala, appears capable of processing and storing emotional memories.”

• cites de Quervain et al. 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

By this model, emotional or stressful experiences briefly intensify hippocampal processing enough to capture the essence of an unfolding emotional episode, after which hippocampal processing is impaired.

“By this model, emotional and/or stressful experiences briefly intensify hippocampal processing, and this is enough time to capture the essence of an unfolding emotional episode.Shortly thereafter, however, hippocampal processing is impaired”

• cites Diamond et al. (2007) sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Cortisol elevations lead to changes in hippocampal structure and function and to pronounced memory deficits.

“Cortisol elevations lead to demonstrable changes in hippocampal structure and function, and to pronounced memory deficits (e.g., for review, see Lupien and McEwen 1997;de Quervain et al. 2000;McEwen 2000).”

• cites Lupien and McEwen 1997Not checked yet

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• cites de Quervain et al. 2000Not checked yet

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• cites McEwen 2000Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stress's short-lived activation of the hippocampus could account for the persistence of some neutral information in memory.

“Interestingly, the brief activating effect of stress on hippocampal function may also explain why some neutral content remains in memory”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Hormones may promote storage only of memory elements that are themselves emotionally salient.

“Via these interactions, hormone release might encourage encoding and consolidation of only those memory elements that were themselves emotionally arousing and salient (Abercrombie et al. 2006;Roozendaal et al. 2006).”

• cites Abercrombie et al. 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Roozendaal et al. 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In rats, predator stress before training or before retrieval disrupted spatial memory; pretraining stress also reduced hippocampal spinogenesis, while pre-retrieval stress did not.

“One recent study demonstrated that predator stress disrupted spatial memory in two groups of rats, one exposed to the stressor before training and another before memory retrieval (Diamond et al. 2006).”

• Also stated in: § Potential mechanisms underlying stress-based neutral memory impairment · plain

  “Pretraining stress led not only to a pronounced impairment in spatial memory, but also to a reduction in hippocampal spinogenesis.”

• Also stated in: § Potential mechanisms underlying stress-based neutral memory impairment · plain

  “Pre-retrieval stress, on the other hand, led to a similar disruption of memory, but had no effect on spinogenesis.”

• cites Diamond et al. 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The basolateral amygdala may have been preferentially activated by the emotional slide show, allowing glucocorticoids to enhance memory for emotional content but not neutral content.

“These findings suggest that the BLA may have been preferentially activated by our emotionally arousing slide show, thus enabling GCs to enhance memory for emotional content, but not by the neutral slide show”

May combine two claims.

The stress-related enhancement of emotional memory and impairment of neutral memory likely arose from stress hormones acting on different memory systems.

“Both the stress-based enhance-ment of emotional memory and the stress-based disruption of neutral memory likely arose from the impact of stress hormones on different memory systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The temporal dynamics model proposes that stress briefly enhances hippocampal activity for seconds to minutes, followed by a long refractory period of dramatically reduced hippocampal function.

“The other possibility, as specified by Diamond et al. (2007), is based on a temporal dynamics model by which hippocampal activity is briefly enhanced by stress (on the order of seconds to minutes), followed by a long refractory period during which hippocampal function is dramatically reduced.”

• cites Diamond et al. (2007) sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Cortisol elevations can disrupt the hippocampus and parts of the prefrontal cortex, which are required for normal memory, and can result in disruptions in memory for neutral information.

“cortisol elevations can disrupt the functioning of the hippocampus and parts of the prefrontal cortex, which are required for normal memory function, and can result in disruptions in memory for neutral information (Kirschbaum et al. 1996;Kim and Diamond 2002;Jelicic et al. 2004;Payne et al. 2006).”

• cites Kirschbaum et al. 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Kim and Diamond 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Jelicic et al. 2004Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Numerous studies suggest that amygdala activation underlies stress-based emotional memory enhancement, whereas hippocampal inactivation underlies stress-based neutral memory impairment.

“Numerous studies suggest that amygdala activation underlies stressed-based emotional memory enhancement, whereas hippocampal inactivation underlies stress-based neutral memory impairment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The amygdala and hippocampus interact during retrieval of emotional memories.

“Interestingly, the hippocampus and amygdala also play interactive roles in emotional memory retrieval (Dolcos et al. 2005;Kensinger and Schacter 2005).”

• cites Dolcos et al. 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Kensinger and Schacter 2005Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For some conditions, stress before retrieval harms negative arousing material more than neutral material.

“Indeed, Kuhlmann et al. (2005a,b) have demonstrated that, under certain conditions, negative arousing material suffers more than neutral material.”

• cites Kuhlmann et al. (2005a,b)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Assay accuracy and linearity for cortisol were 103% and 96%, respectively.

“Method accuracy, determined by spike recovery, and linearity, determined by serial dilution were 103% and 96%, respectively.”

May combine two claims.

The emotional memory enhancement effect is robust and was observed by the authors in a similar prior study.

“This”

• cites Payne et al. 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Assay accuracy and linearity for alpha-amylase were 101% and 96%, respectively.

“Method accuracy, determined by spike recovery, and linearity, determined by serial dilution were 101% and 96%, respectively.”

May combine two claims.

Neutral memory recall was reduced even though the stress group showed a bias toward more false recall.

“At the same time, the impaired recall of neutral memories appears to occur despite a bias shift toward more false recall.”

May combine two claims.

Stress administered before encoding can influence later remembering, and the effects are complex.

“We add to these findings by demonstrating that stress administered prior to encoding can influence later remembering, and that these effects are quite complex.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Most studies of human stress and memory have focused on either retrieval impairment or consolidation enhancement.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Payne et al. (2006) found that a brief delay after stress can leave neutral memory impaired while emotional memory is preserved, which suggests encoding may contribute.

“Payne et al. (2006) showed that stress can produce neutral memory impairment and emotional memory preservation after a brief delay, which suggests that encoding processes could support these findings.”

• cites Payne et al. (2006)Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Free and cued recall responses were scored by two judges blind to experimental condition; free recall agreement exceeded 90%.

“Two judges, blind to experimental condition, scored these data.”

May combine two claims.

In these pharmacological experiments, cortisol was manipulated before encoding but reached its highest levels after stimulus encoding was completed.

“In these experiments, cortisol was manipulated prior to encoding, but reached its highest levels after stimulus encoding had been completed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Salivary cortisol provides an index of bioavailable free cortisol and is a more accurate measure of cortisol responsivity than plasma cortisol.

“Cortisol was assessed via saliva, which provides an index of bioavailable free cortisol and is considered a more accurate measure of cortisol responsivity than plasma cortisol (Kudielka and Kirschbaum 2005).”

• cites Kudielka and Kirschbaum 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Kuhlmann and Wolf (2006) demonstrated enhanced recall of emotional pictures and reduced recall of neutral pictures when cortisol was administered before encoding, similar to the present findings.

“Interestingly, Kuhlmann and Wolf (2006) demonstrated enhanced recall of emotional pictures and reduced recall of neutral pictures when cortisol was administered prior to encoding, which is very similar to the findings reported here.”

• cites Kuhlmann and Wolf (2006)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several pharmacological studies suggest that the present results are more likely due to influences on consolidation.

“several pharmacological studies suggest that our results are more likely due to influences on consolidation (Buchanan and Lovallo 2001;Abercrombie et al. 2003;Kuhlmann and Wolf 2006).”

• cites Buchanan and Lovallo 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Abercrombie et al. 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Kuhlmann and Wolf 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Stress-related increases in salivary alpha-amylase can be inhibited by adrenergic antagonists and stimulated by beta-adrenergic agonists.

“Stressrelated increases in salivary ␣-amylase can be inhibited by adrenergic antagonists and can be stimulated by ␤-adrenergic agonists (Speirs et al. 1974;Gallacher and Petersen 1983).”

• cites Speirs et al. 1974Not checked yet

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• cites Gallacher and Petersen 1983Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The TSST combines social evaluative threat and uncontrollability, which together produce a large HPA response in humans.

“The TSST combines social evaluative threat with stressor uncontrollability, which together produce a large HPA response in humans (Dickerson and Kemeny 2004).”

• cites Dickerson and Kemeny 2004Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors' previous finding was that stress increases false memories.

“These false reports were of special interest given our previous finding that stress increases false memories (Payne et al. 2002).”

• cites Payne et al. 2002Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Trier Social Stress Test is a well-established method for inducing a significant HPA response in the laboratory.

“The TSST is a well-established method used to induce a significant HPA response in laboratory settings (Kirschbaum et al. 1993(Kirschbaum et al. , 1996;;Kuhlmann et al. 2005b).”

• cites Kirschbaum et al. 1993Not checked yet

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• cites Kirschbaum et al. 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Kuhlmann et al. 2005bNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Eleven participants did not return for the one-week follow-up, leaving 65 who completed the protocol.

“Eleven subjects failed to return at the 1-wk follow up session, resulting in a total of 65 subjects who completed the entire protocol.”