The DOI matches its Crossref record; 36 of the 70 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Secure spread spectrum watermarking for multimedia
Abstract
This paper presents a secure (tamper-resistant) algorithm for watermarking images, and a methodology for digital watermarking that may be generalized to audio, video, and multimedia data. We advocate that a watermark should be constructed as an independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Gaussian random vector that is imperceptibly inserted in a spread-spectrum-like fashion into the perceptually most significant spectral components of the data. We argue that insertion of a watermark under this regime makes the watermark robust to signal processing operations (such as lossy compression, filtering, digital-analog and analog-digital conversion, requantization, etc.), and common geometric transformations (such as cropping, scaling, translation, and rotation) provided that the original image is available and that it can be successfully registered against the transformed watermarked image. In these cases, the watermark detector unambiguously identifies the owner. Further, the use of Gaussian noise, ensures strong resilience to multiple-document, or collusional, attacks. Experimental results are provided to support these claims, along with an exposition of pending open problems.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Citations
Cites
A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems
Rivest, R. L., Shamir, A., & Adleman, L. (1983) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/357980.358017 · Cited by 13,012
Huber, P. J. (1981) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/0471725250 · Cited by 7,066
Vector Quantization and Signal Compression
Gersho, A., & Gray, R. M. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3626-0 · Cited by 7,055
Three-dimensional computer vision: a geometric viewpoint
(1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.32-0357 · Cited by 3,032
Theory of Spread-Spectrum Communications - A Tutorial
Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., & Milstein, L. B. (1982) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcom.1982.1095533 · Cited by 1,376
van Schyndel, R. G., Tirkel, A. Z., & Osborne, C. F. (2002) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.1994.413536 · Cited by 1,139
Jähne, B. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-21817-4 · Cited by 1,139
Collusion-secure fingerprinting for digital data
Boneh, D., & Shaw, J. (1998) · IEEE Transactions on Information Theory · doi:10.1109/18.705568 · Cited by 980
Signal compression based on models of human perception
Jayant, N. S., Johnston, J. D., & Safranek, R. J. (1993) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.241504 · Cited by 790
Spread-Spectrum Communications
Ellersick, F., Schilling, D. L., Cook, C. E., et al. (1983) · Encyclopedia of Wireless and Mobile Communications · doi:10.1081/e-ewmc2-120043935 · Cited by 679
Flagged first, then by citations
34 of the 70 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- kilian, 0, Resistance of watermarked documents to collusional attacks
- braudaway, 1996, Color correct digital watermarking of images
- adelson, 1990, Digital signal encoding and decoding apparatus
- schreiber, 1991, Receiver-compatible enhanced definition television system
- rhoads, 1995, Indentification/authentication coding method and apparatus
- turner, 1989, Digital data security system
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 4,301–4,400 of 5,299
Efficient Blind Steganalysis Algorithm for QIM Encoding
Han, W. (2008) · Jisuanji gongcheng · Cited by 1
A variance-based public verifiable copyright protection scheme surviving intentional attacks
Chen, T., & Lee, W.-B. (2003) · The Imaging Science Journal · doi:10.1080/13682199.2003.11784409 · Cited by 1
Scalable Distribution of Watermarked Media
Stenborg, K.-G. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-262-6.ch018 · Cited by 1
Multiple Description Coding with Application in Multimedia Watermarking
Liu, M., & Zhu, C. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-262-6.ch026 · Cited by 1
Digital Watermarking for Digital Rights Management
Kwok, J. (2003) · Cited by 1
Kwon, O.-H., & Park, R. (2012) · Advances in multimedia and interactive technologies book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-2217-3.ch013 · Cited by 1
A refined architecture for DRM
Buyens, K., Michiels, S., & Joosen, W. (2006) · Lirias · Cited by 1
mPDF: Framework for Watermarking PDF Files using Image Watermarking AlgorithmsPreprint
Mehta, S., Prabhakaran, B., Nallusamy, R., et al. (2016) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1610.02443 · Cited by 1
Meta-fragile watermarking for wireless networks
Song, G.-S., Kim, S.-W., Lee, W.-H., et al. (2003) · doi:10.1109/icccas.2002.1180665 · Cited by 1
A fragile watennarking scheme for telemedicine
Wang, G., & Ni-ni, R. (2005) · doi:10.1109/icima.2004.1384200 · Cited by 1
Trammanontikul, P., & Amornraksa, T. (2005) · IEEE International Symposium on Communications and Information Technology (ISCIT) · doi:10.1109/iscit.2004.1412862 · Cited by 1
Using musical features for watermarking music scores
Schmücker, M. (2001) · doi:10.1109/wdm.2001.990154 · Cited by 1
An adayfive digital watermarking approach
Zhang, W., Zhu, W., & Fu, Y. (2005) · doi:10.1109/icima.2004.1384283 · Cited by 1
A blind wavelet-based watermarking with detail-subband coefficients prediction
Guo, J.-M., Tzeng, Y.-Q., & Lee, J.-D. (2008) · doi:10.1109/iecon.2008.4758229 · Cited by 1
Wavelet Domain Watermark Detection and Extraction using the Vector-based Hidden Markov Model
Amini, M. (2016) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University) · Cited by 1
Thanki, R. M., Dwivedi, V. V., & Borisagar, K. R. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1701.04185 · Cited by 1
Video Indexing using Watermarking Technique
Castriciano, G., Lancini, R. C., Mapelli, F., et al. (2001) · Virtual Community of Pathological Anatomy (University of Castilla La Mancha) · Cited by 1
6 Combinational Domain Digital Watermarking
Shih, F. Y. (2017) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781315121109-7 · Cited by 1
A Component-based Framework for Embedded Digital Instrumentation Software with Design Patterns
Xia, Y., & Yaowu, C. (2007) · ACIS International Conference on Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Parallel/Distributed Computing (SNPD) · doi:10.1109/snpd.2007.80 · Cited by 1
Video Watermarking using quantization index modulation in the 3D-DCT domain
Campisi, P., & Neri, A. (2006) · Iris (Roma Tre University) · Cited by 1
A Novel Contourlet Domain Watermark Detector for Copyright ProtectionPreprint
Amirmazlaghani, M. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1801.07023 · Cited by 1
Shih, F. Y. (2010) · doi:10.1002/9780470590416.ch13 · Cited by 1
Hasan, H. R. (2014) · Cited by 1
Flusser, P. J., PhD, T. S., & PhD, B. Z. (2009) · doi:10.1002/9780470684757.ch8 · Cited by 1
An Improved Secret Key Estimation Method for Sequential Steganography
Wang, P., Luo, X., & Liu, F. (2006) · doi:10.1109/iih-msp.2006.265026 · Cited by 1
Argus: A Fully Transparent Incentive System for Anti-Piracy Campaigns (Extended Version)Preprint
Zhang, X., Guo, X., Zeng, Z., Liu, W., Guo, Z., Chen, Y., Chen, S., Yin, Q., Yang, M., & Zhou, L. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2107.06049 · Cited by 1
Intelligent Image Watermarking for Copyright Protection
Roy, S. S., Basu, A., & Chattopadhyay, A. (2021) · doi:10.1002/9781119571452.ch4 · Cited by 1
Chen, D., & Zhou, B. B. (2008) · International journal of intelligent engineering and systems · doi:10.22266/ijies2008.0930.04 · Cited by 1
The Influence of Channel Coding on Information Hiding Bounds and Detection Error Rate
Zhang, F., & Zhang, X. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/11816515_55 · Cited by 1
Introduction: Computer Vision Research at NECI
Cox, I. J. (1999) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1023/a:1008176402209 · Cited by 1
Self-citationFlusser, J., Suk, T., & Zitová, B. (2016) · doi:10.1002/9781119039402.ch9 · Cited by 1
Perceptual Data Embedding in Audio and Speech Signals
Zhang, L. (2021) · doi:10.32920/ryerson.14656839 · Cited by 1
Spanias, A., Painter, T., & Atti, V. (2005) · doi:10.1002/9780470041970.refs · Cited by 1
Penumarthi, K. (2005) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.2100 · Cited by 1
Time-Frequency Signal Synthesis and Its Application in Multimedia Watermark Detection
Krishnan, S., & Le, L. (2022) · doi:10.32920/21428703.v1 · Cited by 1
Radojicic, V. D., Bojović, N., Markovic, D. L. J., Marković, G. Z., Petrović, V., Stojanović-Višić, B., Simić, M., Trošić, S. J., Vasić, N., Kilibarda, M., et al. (2022) · doi:10.37528/ftte/9788673954165/postel.2022.ps
An analysis of correlation‐based watermarking systems
Ejima, M., & Miyazaki, A. (2003) · Electronics and Communications in Japan (Part III Fundamental Electronic Science) · doi:10.1002/ecjc.10093 · Cited by 1
Securing Mobile Ubiquitous Services using Trusted Computing
Ho, A., & Leung, Y. (2009) · Cited by 1
Copyright Protection in Digital Multimedia
Kumar, S., Kumar, S., & Nandi, S. (2010) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17878-8_46 · Cited by 1
A Blind Image Watermarking Based on Dual Detector
Huang, C.-P., Liao, C.-J., & Hsieh, C. (2009) · Journal of information science and engineering
Novel techniques for watermark extraction in the DCT domain.
Hernández, J. R. H., Amado, M., & Pérez‐González, F. (1999) · NSIP
Digital Watermarking of JPEG Image Based on Human Visual System
Bae, S. (2004) · The KIPS Transactions PartB · doi:10.3745/kipstb.2004.11b.2.125
Estudi del funcionament dels codis LDPC com a codis fingerprinting
Escobar, S. V. (2010)
Applying Blocking and Frame Grouping to Design a Robust and Imperceptible Video Watermark
Wang, X., & Baozhong, H. (2012) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31576-3_75
ROBUST COLOR IMAGE WATERMAKING SCHEME
Belkacem, S., Dibi, Z., & Bouridane, A. (2007)
Watermarking Oriented Video Modelling in the Wavelet Domain
Mitrea, M., Preteux, F. J., & Vlad, A. (2004)
Improved digital watermarking schemes using DCT and neural techniques
Agarwal, H., Panda, S. K., & Behera, J. (2007)
Attacking Traitor Tracing Schemes Using History Recording and Abrupt Decoders
Kiayias, A., & Pehlivanoğlu, S. (2011) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-24861-0_2
A BlindWatermarking Scheme Based on Combined Complex Transforms
Okino, T., & Uto, T. (2015) · Journal of Signal Processing · doi:10.2299/jsp.19.163
Dhar, P. K., Khan, M. I., Dhar, S., et al. (2011) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27189-2_14
An adaptive wavelet-based watermarking using shift-orthogonal finite-length sequences
Li, S., Zhang, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2007)
Secure transmission of visual image in the VTS system using fingerprinting
Czaplewski, B., & Czaplewski, K. (2012) · Zeszyty Naukowe / Akademia Morska w Szczecinie
Vande, Y., Susanto, A., & Litasari (2005) · Teknosains
A Wavelet-Based Watermarking Scheme of Digital Image Using ROI Method
Kim, T.-J. (2004) · The KIPS Transactions PartB · doi:10.3745/kipstb.2004.11b.3.289
Effective Digital Watermarking Algorithm by Contour Detection
Choi, W.-H., Shim, H.-J., & Kim, J. (2004) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-24768-5_34
Multiple Watermark Generation Using Dot Code A and Hadamard Transform for Audio Content
Cui, J., Lee, J., & Kim, J. (2012) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-35264-5_6
Time-Variant Watermarking of MPEG-Compressed Digital Videos
Leiss, E. L. (2005) · CLEI electronic journal · doi:10.19153/cleiej.8.1.1
A Novel Digital Video Watermarking Scheme Based on the Scene Change Analysis
Geetamma, T., Krishna, T. V. N. N. M. V., & Rao, D. S. (2011) · Advances in intelligent and soft computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27443-5_22
Implementation of Visible Signature
Chen, K., Huang, Z., & Zheng, Y. (2002) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0494-7_5
On Channel Capacity and Modulation of Watermarks in Digital Still Images
Breitbach, M., & Imai, H. (1999) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-48390-x_10
Implementing An Adaptive Behavior For Spread Spectrum Watermarking Procedures
Frattolillo, F. (2007) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.1072131
Digital signature using stationary wavelet transform based watermarking for robots
Thapa, K. N. K., Kumari, P., & Kantham, L. (2014) · IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Computing Research (ICCIC) · doi:10.1109/iccic.2014.7238560
Fingerprinted Video through Multicast Distribution
Stenborg, K.-G. (2004)
Robust Multi-Watermarking Method Based on Vector Quantization Using Index Transform Function
Bae, S., & Song, K.-W. (2005) · The KIPS Transactions PartB · doi:10.3745/kipstb.2005.12b.5.513
Joint security & robustness enhancement for quantization embedding
Wu, M. H. (2004) · Proceedings - International Conference on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/icip.2003.1246722
Adaptive Data Embedding Scheme Based on Similar and Dissimilar Clustering Strategies
Chang, C., Lin, C., & Chen, Y.-H. (2008) · Fundamenta Informaticae · doi:10.3233/fun-2008-881-202
Watermarking Representation for Adaptive Image Classification with Radial Basis Function Network
Pun, C. (2010) · Machine Learning · doi:10.5772/9138
The Minimum Detectable Capacity of Digital Image Information Hiding
Zhang, F., Liu, R., & Zhang, X. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11760191_41
A Robust Watermarking Technique in Geometric Distortion of Digital Image
Kim, W. B., Ko, I., Lee, N.-Y., et al. (2003) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-44843-8_33
Public Watermarking Scheme Based on Multiresolution Representation and Double Hilbert Scanning
Yao, Z., Chen, L., Pan, R., et al. (2005) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11596981_93
Villacampa, E. M., & Clos, E. S. (2003) · Buran
An application of pdf statistics to optimal watermark detections
Stanković, S., & Zogović, P. (2004) · IEEE International Symposium on Signal Processing and Information Technology (ISSPIT) · doi:10.1109/isspit.2003.1341217
An Extensive Method to Detect the Image Digital Watermarking Based on the Known Template
Feng, Y., Luo, S., & Pan, L. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11922162_4
Adaptive Embedding and Detection for Improved Video Watermarking
Echizen, I., Fujii, Y., Yamada, T., et al. (2007) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71169-8_7
Using Wavelets and Independent Component Analysis for Quantization Index Modulation Watermarking
Liu, J., She, K., & Zhu, W. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02962-2_70
A new video watermarking protocol
Delp, E. J., & Lin, E. T. (2003) · Conference proceedings · doi:10.1109/mwscas.2002.1187022
Robustness proof on a united watermarking based on CRT theorem
Liu, L., Xiao-su, C., Dao-ju, X., et al. (2005) · Wuhan University Journal of Natural Sciences · doi:10.1007/bf02828675
An Information-Hiding Scheme Based on Quantization-Based Embedding Technique
Lu, T.-C., Chang, C., & Liu, Y.-L. (2009) · Fundamenta Informaticae · doi:10.3233/fi-2009-0060
Robust Blind Image Watermarking with Independent Component Analysis: A Embedding Algorithm
Murillo-Fuentes, J. J., & Boloix-Tortosa, R. (2005) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11494669_135
The Current Intellectual Property Debate: A Citation-Based Analysis
Linder, C., & Seidenstricker, S. (2011) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics
Novel robust video watermarking algorithm based on adaptive modulation
Lee, S., & Seo, D.-I. (2012) · International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology
A new detecting scheme for blind images watermarking
Sun, Z., & Dengguo, F. (2005) · doi:10.1109/icosp.2004.1442248
A Chinese Remainder Theorem Oriented Information Hiding Scheme
Chang, C., & Lu, T.-C. (2004) · Eurographics · doi:10.2312/egmm/mm04/181-190
Wavelet-Based Image Watermaking Using the Genetic Algorithm.
Kumsawat, P., Attakitmongcol, K., Srikaew, A., et al. (2004) · KES
Mapping Energy Video Watermarking Algorithm Based on Compressed Domain
Wang, L., Yao, H., Liu, S., et al. (2004) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-30543-9_55
Protection of Multimedia Data in Distribution and Storage
Eskicioğlu, A. M. (2006) · Encyclopedia of Multimedia · doi:10.1007/0-387-30038-4_196
Intelligent encoder and decoder model for robust and secure audio watermarking
Patil, M. R. (2009) · INFLIBNET
Improved Differential Energy Watermarking for Embedding Watermark
Kwon, G., Jung, S., Nam, S.-J., et al. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11922841_30
Rotationally Robust Data Hiding in JPEG Images Using A Tunable Spreading Function
Fleming, C. E., & Mobasseri, B. G. (2006) · IEEE Military Communications Conference (MILCOM) · doi:10.1109/milcom.2005.1605754
A New Asymmetric Fingerprinting Framework Based on Secret Sharing
Wang, Y., Lü, S., & Liu, Z. (2002) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-35612-9_4
A Neoteric Chaotic & Adaptive Watermarking Scheme for Colored Images
Srivastava, N., & Singhal, A. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9151-2_64
RSC Robust Hybrid Watermarking Technique
Asvaroglu, F., & İnce, E. A. (2006) · doi:10.1109/siu.2006.1659803
Enhanced Watermarking Scheme Based on Removal of Local Means
Kang, H. S., Hong, J. W., & Kim, K. (2003) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-36617-2_4
Optimized model embedding invisible robust watermark
Li, X., & Xue, X. (2005) · doi:10.1109/icosp.2004.1442237
The Maximum Capacity and Minimum Detectable Capacity of Information Hiding in Digital Images
Zhang, F., Liu, X., Li, J., & Zhang, X. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11751588_7
Witsenhausen’s Counterexample and Its Links with Multimedia Security Problems
Comesaña, P., Pérez‐González, F., & Abdallah, C. T. (2012) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32205-1_38
Bucket attack on numeric set watermarking model and safeguards
Gupta, G., Pieprzyk, J., & Hamey, L. (2011) · Information Security Technical Report · doi:10.1016/j.istr.2011.09.002
Information Hiding in H.264 Compressed Video
Sajiyya, K., Sreenivasan, D., Sruthi, L., et al. (2014)
Digital Image Authentication Based on Turbo Codes
Yang, Q., & Chen, K. (2004) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-30493-7_25
Lossless Data Hiding for High Embedding Capacity
Lee, H., & Rhee, K.-H. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11951957_37
Metadata
- Authors
- Cox, I. J., Kilian, J., Leighton, F. T., & Shamoon, T.
- Affiliations
- NEC (Japan) (JP)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- ORCID
- Cox, I.J.
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Image Processing
- Published
- 1997-12
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1673-1687
- ISSN
- 1057-7149 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-0042
- OpenAlex
- W2116467012
- Semantic Scholar
- a5eaa0b77d774745409499be2a2f16c506156161
- Cited by
- 5,299
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 112 · 2018: 132 · 2017: 160 · 2016: 168 · 2015: 201 · 2014: 211 · 2013: 240 · 2012: 289
- FWCI
- 98.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Image Processing (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Steganography and Watermarking Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Digital Media Forensic Detection
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Data Compression Techniques
- Keywords
- digital watermarking, spread spectrum watermarking, tamper resistance, Gaussian random vectors, image watermarking, watermark robustness, lossy compression, geometric transformations, image registration
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
