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Cited by 7Teleoperation and Haptic SystemsSpace Exploration and TechnologySoil Mechanics and Vehicle Dynamics

Quantifying operational constraints of low-latency telerobotics for planetary surface operations

Open access
Mellinkoff, Benjamin J., Spydell, Matthew M., Bailey, Wendy, Burns, Jack O.·2018·2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference
DOI 10.1109/aero.2018.8396673
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Abstract

NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) and Orion crew vehicle will launch humans to cislunar space in the early 2020s to begin the new era of space exploration. NASA plans to use the Orion crew vehicle to transport humans between Earth and cislunar space where there will be a stationed habitat known as the “Deep Space Gateway” (DSG). The proximity to the lunar surface allows for direct communication between the DSG and surface assets, which enables low-latency telerobotic exploration. While this exploration method is promising, the operational constraints must be fully explored on Earth before being utilized on space exploration missions. This paper identifies two constraints on space exploration using low-latency surface telerobotics and attempts to quantify these constraints. One constraint associated with low-latency surface telerobotics is the bandwidth available between the orbiting command station and the ground assets. The bandwidth available will vary during operation. As a result, it is critical to quantify the operational video conditions required for effective exploration. We designed an experiment to quantify the threshold frame rate required for effective exploration. The experiment simulated geological exploration via low-latency surface telerobotics using a modified commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) rover in a lunar analog environment. The results from this experiment indicate that humans should operate above a threshold frame rate of 5 frames per second. In a separate, but similar experiment, we introduced a 2.6 second delay in the video system. This delay recreated the latency conditions present when operating rovers on the lunar farside from an Earth-based command station. This time delay was compared to low-latency conditions for teleoperation at the DSG (≤0.4 seconds). The results from this experiment show a 150% increase in exploration time when the latency is increased to 2.6 seconds. This indicates that such a delay significantly complicates real-time exploration strategies.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1109/aero.2018.8396673

Cites

19 of 19 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

9 of 27 cited sources checked · 5 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingown data

    The results from the bandwidth experiment indicate that humans should operate above a threshold frame rate of 5 frames per second.

    “The results from this experiment indicate that humans should operate above a threshold frame rate of 5 frames per second.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The first bandwidth experiment found that the minimum frame rate was in the range of 4-6 FPS.

    “In particular, we found that the minimum frame rate was in the range of 4-6 FPS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The consistency of exploration and discovery at 4 FPS has more variability than at 5 and 6 FPS.

    “These results demonstrate that the consistency of exploration and discovery at 4 FPS has more variability than at 5 and 6 FPS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The results from the latency experiment show a 150% increase in exploration time when the latency is increased to 2.6 seconds.

    “The results from this experiment show a 150% increase in exploration time when the latency is increased to 2.6 seconds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The sample variance of 5 and 6 FPS are equivalent at the 95% confidence level, forming Group 1.

    “The sample variance of 5 and 6 FPS are equivalent at the 95% confidence level, which forms Group 1 in Table 3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 19
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 25
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low-latency surface telerobotics is best conducted within approximately 60,000 km from the lunar surface asset to be within the human cognitive threshold for real-time perception, which equates to a maximum latency of approximately 0.4 seconds.

    “Low-latency surface telerobotics is best conducted within approximately 60,000 km from the lunar surface asset to be within the human cognitive threshold for real-time perception.This threshold equates to a maximum latency of approximately 0.4 seconds [5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] 5. D. Lester and H. Thronson, "Human space exploration and human spaceflight: Latency and the cognitive scale of the universe," Space Policy, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 89-93, 2011. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Utilization of low-latency surface telerobotics on the lunar surface will allow scientific exploration of the surface and deployment of surface infrastructure while astronauts remain in orbit.

    “Utilization of low-latency surface telerobotics on the lunar surface will allow scientific exploration of the surface and deployment of surface infrastructure while astronauts remain in orbit [9].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] 9. J. Burns, D. Kring, J. Hopkins, S. Norris, T. Lazio, and J. Kasper, "A lunar l2-farside exploration and space mis- sion concept with the orion multi-purpose crew vehicle and a teleoperated lander/rover," Advances in Space Research, vol. 52, pp. 306-320, 2013. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies on video quality concluded that there is a threshold value for video quality to maintain operability.

    “While the results from each of the studies differ slightly, ultimately the studies all concluded that there is a threshold value for video quality to maintain operability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [19] 19. M. Claypool, K. Claypool, and F. Damaa, "The effects of frame rate and resolution on users playing first person shooter games," The International Society for Optical Engineering, vol. 6071, 2006. source

      The Conclusions (p. 10) say a suitable frame rate is critical for adequate first-person-shooter performance: 3 and 7 fps were almost unplayable. But the paper does not establish one threshold for video quality across the studies; it reports different findings for streaming video and games, and says resolution had little effect on game performance. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [20] 20. V. Ranadive and T. Sheridan, "Video frame rate, reso- lution and grayscale tradeoffs for undersea telemanipu- lator control." JPL Proc. of the 17th Ann. Conf. on Manual Control, 1981, pp. 77-88. source
    • cites [21] 21. M. Anvari, T. Broderick, H. Stein, T. Chapman, M. Ghodoussi, D. W. Birch, C. Mckinley, P. Trudeau, S. Dutta, and C. H. Goldsmith, "The impact of latency on surgical precision and task completion during robotic-assisted remote telepresence surgery," Computer Aided Surgery, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 93- 99, 2005, pMID: 16298920. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10929080500228654 source

      The Creation of latency section mentions minor video-signal degradation but does not test video quality or identify a quality threshold for operability. The Discussion addresses transmission latency instead, finding no obvious cut-off at 300 ms for completing the tested tasks. Searches for a video-quality threshold found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    The first and second studies indicate there is a relationship between minimum operational frame rate and the speed of the task.

    “The first and second studies indicate there is a relationship between minimum operational frame rate and the speed of the task.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [19] 19. M. Claypool, K. Claypool, and F. Damaa, "The effects of frame rate and resolution on users playing first person shooter games," The International Society for Optical Engineering, vol. 6071, 2006. source
    • cites [20] 20. V. Ranadive and T. Sheridan, "Video frame rate, reso- lution and grayscale tradeoffs for undersea telemanipu- lator control." JPL Proc. of the 17th Ann. Conf. on Manual Control, 1981, pp. 77-88. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The telemedicine study concluded that latency up to 0.5 seconds will still allow surgeons to perform tasks, but task completion time and number of errors increase as higher latency is introduced.

    “Their conclusion was that latency up to 0.5 seconds will still allow surgeons to perform tasks; however, the task completion time and number of errors goes up as higher latency is introduced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] 21. M. Anvari, T. Broderick, H. Stein, T. Chapman, M. Ghodoussi, D. W. Birch, C. Mckinley, P. Trudeau, S. Dutta, and C. H. Goldsmith, "The impact of latency on surgical precision and task completion during robotic-assisted remote telepresence surgery," Computer Aided Surgery, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 93- 99, 2005, pMID: 16298920. [Online]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10929080500228654 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The maximum bandwidth available between Earth-Moon L2 and the lunar farside could be increased by increasing the size of the antenna at Earth-Moon L2, increasing the power of the signal sent from the rover, or implementing an optical communication system.

    “Besides compression techniques, the actual maximum bandwidth available between Earth-Moon L2 and the lunar farside could be increased by either increasing the size of the antenna stationed at Earth-Moon L2, increasing the power of the signal sent from the rover, or implementing an optical communication system [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] 24. H. Kaushal and G. Kaddoum, "Optical communication in space: Challenges and mitigation techniques," IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 57-96, Firstquarter 2017. source

      The Advantages of FSO Communication over RF Communication (p. 3) links aperture diameter to beam divergence and antenna gain, while Future Scope (p. 29) describes high-rate Moon–Earth laser communication and expects optical links to outperform RF data rates. The paper does not assess the Earth–Moon L2–lunar-farside link or establish that increasing this rover’s transmit power or the L2 antenna size would raise its maximum bandwidth. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The first study found that user performance is up to 7 times worse at frame rates as low as 4 FPS compared to 30 FPS.

    “They came to the conclusion that user performance is up to 7 times worse at frame rates as low as 4 FPS compared to the performance when operating at 30 FPS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] 19. M. Claypool, K. Claypool, and F. Damaa, "The effects of frame rate and resolution on users playing first person shooter games," The International Society for Optical Engineering, vol. 6071, 2006. source

      The User Performance section (p. 7) reports that performance declines as frame rate decreases. But the Conclusions (p. 10) attribute the sevenfold difference to 60 FPS versus 3 FPS, not 30 FPS versus 4 FPS; 4 FPS was not among this study’s tested frame rates. (LLM, conf=0.91)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The first study found that the video game became essentially inoperable around 4 FPS.

    “In particular, they found that the video game became essentially inoperable around 4 FPS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] 19. M. Claypool, K. Claypool, and F. Damaa, "The effects of frame rate and resolution on users playing first person shooter games," The International Society for Optical Engineering, vol. 6071, 2006. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Although the treatment level of 5 FPS passed the tests for normality, the approach for non-normal data must be used based on the rejection of the null hypothesis for both 6 FPS and 4 FPS.

    “Although the treatment level of 5 FPS passed the tests for normality, we must use the approach for non-normal data based on the rejection of the null hypothesis for both 6 FPS and 4 FPS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Based on the results of the ANOVA using the ADM, the null hypothesis that the variance between the treatment levels of frame rate were equivalent was rejected at the 95% confidence level (F(2,148)=12.962, p=0.000006) and the alternative hypothesis was accepted.

    “Based on the results of the ANOVA using the ADM, the null hypothesis was rejected at the 95% confidence level (F (2, 148) = 12.962, p = 0.000006) and the alternative hypothesis was accepted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The sample variance of 4 FPS is significantly different than 5 and 6 FPS at the 95% confidence level, forming Group 2.

    “The sample variance of 4 FPS is significantly different than 5 and 6 FPS at the 95% confidence level, which forms Group 2 in Table 3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the bandwidth experiment, the ANOVA on MTD rejected the null hypothesis at the 95% confidence level (F(2,148)=7.945, p=0.000528) and accepted the alternative hypothesis.

    “Based on the results of the ANOVA using the MTD, the null hypothesis is rejected at the 95% confidence level (F (2, 148) = 7.945, p = 0.000528) and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Based on the skewness and kurtosis p-values in Table 1, the null hypothesis that the data are distributed normally is rejected at the 95% confidence level, and the data are treated as non-normal for the homogeneity of variance analysis.

    “Based on the skewness and kurtosis p-values in Table 1, we reject the null hypothesis at the 95% confidence level and will treat the data as non-normal for the homogeneity of variance analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The MTD of 5 and 6 FPS are equivalent at the 95% confidence level, forming Group 1.

    “The MTD of 5 and 6 FPS are equivalent at the 95% confidence level, which forms Group 1 in Table 5.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the latency experiment, the Anderson-Darling test rejected the null hypothesis at the 95% confidence level, and the data were treated as non-normal for the homogeneity of variance analysis.

    “Based on the Anderson-Darling A 2 p-values in Table 6, we reject the null hypothesis at the 95% confidence level and will treat the data as non-normal for the homogeneity of variance analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the latency experiment, the ANOVA on MTD rejected the null hypothesis at the 95% confidence level (F(1,85)=19.909, p=0.000025) and accepted the alternative hypothesis.

    “The null hypothesis is rejected at the 95% confidence level (F (1, 85) = 19.909,p = 0.000025) and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The MTD of 4 FPS is significantly higher than 5 and 6 FPS at the 95% confidence level, forming Group 2.

    “The MTD of 4 FPS is significantly higher than 5 and 6 FPS at the 95% confidence level, which forms Group 2 in Table 5.”
    • Also stated in: § Mean Time to Discovery (MTD) Analysis · boosted
      “The results reinforce what we see in Figure 7 and prove there is a significant increase in the MTD from 5 to 4 FPS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The DSG will also serve as a communication relay between ground assets on the lunar farside and Earth command stations.

    “While the DSG will not be manned year-round, the DSG will also serve as a communication relay between ground assets on the lunar farside and Earth command stations [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] 2. J. Burns, T. Fong, D. Kring, W. Pratt, and T. Cichan, "Science and exploration at the moon and mars enabled by surface telerobotics." IAA-17, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1705/1705. 09692.pdf source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The entire process was done so the course had a random distribution of rocks.

    “This entire process was done so the course had a random distribution of rocks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The location used for running the experiment was chosen because of features (e.g., crater-like bowl) that are similar to the Moon.

    “The location used for running the experiment was located on the University of Colorado Boulder's South Campus.It was chosen because of some features (e.g.crater-like bowl) that are similar to the Moon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Once all rocks were distributed, the grid was removed from the course to eliminate an unnatural reference point for the operator's situational awareness.

    “Once all rocks were distributed the grid was removed from the course to eliminate an unnatural reference point for the operator's situational awareness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Keeping astronauts on board the DSG within the real-time cognitive threshold will offer increased value and success to future missions.

    “This means keeping astronauts on board the DSG within the real-time cognitive threshold will offer increased value and success to future missions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The proximity to the lunar surface allows for direct communication between the DSG and surface assets, which enables low-latency telerobotic exploration.

    “The proximity to the lunar surface allows for direct communication between the DSG and surface assets, which enables low-latency telerobotic exploration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The training process was repeated briefly at the start of a new testing day for each operator to ensure the operator was performing at the same level for each day of testing.

    “We also repeated the training process briefly at the start of a new testing day for each operator.This was done to ensure the operator was performing at the same level for each day of testing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    This is the best case latency because it only accounts for time delays due to the speed of light.

    “This is the best case latency because it only accounts for time delays due to the speed of light.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The rover was located at the same starting point for each trial.

    “The rover was located at the same starting point for each trial.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The operators were isolated within an enclosed canopy to ensure they were operating the rover blind.

    “The operators were isolated within an enclosed canopy to ensure they were operating the rover”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    2.6 seconds was chosen because it is the best case round-trip communication time from Earth to a communication satellite at Earth-Moon L2 to the lunar farside.

    “2.6 seconds was chosen because it is the best case round-trip communication time from Earth to a communication satellite at Earth-Moon L2 to the lunar farside.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Before official trials, operators underwent training by operating the rover in search of targets in a separate location, repeated until time to discovery became constant, to minimize learning effects.

    “Before the operators began the official trials for data collection they underwent training by operating the rover in search of targets in a separate location.We repeated this process with each driver until the time to discovery became constant.This was done so learning effects present for each driver would be minimized before actual trials began.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The frame rate was randomly varied for each trial in the bandwidth experiment.

    “The frame rate was randomly varied for each trial and the time to discovery was used as the metric of success.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Currently, planetary telerobotics occur at a high latency; the Curiosity Rover operates with a delay from 8.6 minutes to 40 minutes.

    “Currently, planetary telerobotics occur at a high latency; the Curiosity Rover operates with a delay from 8.6 minutes to 40 minutes [8].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] 8. G. Schmidt, G. Landis, and S. Oleson, "Human explo- ration using real-time robotic operations (HERRO): A space exploration strategy for the 21st century," Acta Astronautica, vol. 80, pp. 105-113, 2012. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Each of the 216 rocks were randomly assigned a grid location in the bandwidth experiment.

    “Once the the entire crater was sectioned into a grid each of the 216 rocks were randomly assigned a grid location.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    The data support the use of humans in some capacity for future telerobotic operation.

    “The data support the use of humans in some capacity for future telerobotic operation; the value added to missions is worth the astronaut's time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Even small amounts of latency can affect real-time operation quite drastically, necessitating a different operational strategy such as asynchronous control.

    “Our results show that even small amounts of latency can affect real-time operation quite drastically, thus necessitating a different operational strategy such as asynchronous control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The second study determined that resolution and colorscale can be low while maintaining operability, while a frame rate below 5 FPS produces considerable degradation in performance and increase in variability.

    “The study determined that resolution and colorscale can be low while maintaining operability, while a frame rate below 5 FPS produces a considerable degradation in performance and increase in variability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] 20. V. Ranadive and T. Sheridan, "Video frame rate, reso- lution and grayscale tradeoffs for undersea telemanipu- lator control." JPL Proc. of the 17th Ann. Conf. on Manual Control, 1981, pp. 77-88. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A high tolerance of bandwidth variability is crucial for effective and continuous teleoperation missions.

    “A high tolerance of bandwidth variability is crucial for effective and continuous teleoperation missions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The calculated data rate of 36.864 Mbps does not fall under the 4 Mbps limit, but by using bandwidth-reduction strategies it can be drastically reduced and brought within the threshold for lunar far-side communications.

    “The data rate calculated above does not fall under the 4 Mbps limit; however, by taking into account various strategies for reducing bandwidth our 36 Mbps can be drastically reduced and brought within the threshold for lunar far-side communications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The ability for missions to sustain low-latency operations will create a telepresence on the surface that drastically increases mission value and success.

    “The ability for missions to sustain low-latency operations will create a telepresence on the surface that drastically increases mission's value and success.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Video compression can significantly increase the tolerance of bandwidth variability by drastically decreasing the worst-case bandwidth required for telerobotic missions.

    “Video compression is a technique that can significantly increase the tolerance of bandwidth variability by drastically decreasing the worst case bandwidth required for telerobotic missions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] 22. Adobe, "H.264 for the rest of us," 2009. [Online]. Available: http://wwwimages.adobe.com/content/ dam/Adobe/en/devnet/video/articles/h264 primer/ h264 primer.pdf

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The threshold frame rate is likely dependent on the speed of operations in the video game.

    “It is important to note that the threshold frame rate is likely dependent on the speed of operations in the video game.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
40 of 40

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The actual bandwidth available will sometimes drop below the 4 Mbps due to line-of-sight variability between the rover and the astronauts' communication antenna.

    “However, the actual bandwidth available will sometimes drop below the 4 Mbps due to line-of-sight variability between the rover and the astronauts' communication antenna.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The bandwidth available between the orbiting command station and the ground assets will vary during operation.

    “The bandwidth available will vary during operation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The amount of research investigating the potential limitations of low-latency telerobotics for space applications has been minimal to date.

    “However, the amount of research investigating the potential limitations of low-latency telerobotics for space applications has been minimal to date.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The two latency values used (0.4 and 2.6 seconds) are representative of teleoperating at the DSG and from Earth.

    “These were the only two latency values used in this experiment so that a concise comparison could be made between teleoperating at the DSG and from Earth.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The video game and undersea teleoperation studies are relevant to planetary surface telerobotics.

    “We reviewed previous work on the effects of video quality to validate the results from our experiment.”
    “Studies performed within the field of telemedicine are similar to our latency experiment.”
5 of 5

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(2, 148) = 12.962reported p = .000006 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 148) = 12.962, p = .000006”

  • ConsistentF(2, 148) = 7.945reported p = .000528 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (2, 148) = 7.945, p = .000528”

  • ConsistentF(1, 85) = 19.909reported p = .000025 · recomputed p < .001

    “F (1, 85) = 19.909,p = .000025”

3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Latency ANOVA degrees of freedom conflict with its group counts

    Minor

    Table 7 reports 44 observations in each of two groups, which would give 86 residual degrees of freedom for a two-group ANOVA. The reported test has 85.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. taymans, 0, GStreamer Application Development Manual (1 4 5)
  2. 0, nc(1)
  3. kozierok, 2005, The TCP/IP Guide A Comprehensive Illustrated Internet Protocols Reference
  4. hambleton, 2017, Deep Space Gateway to Open Opportunities for Distant Destinations
  5. peterson, 2009, Environmental control and life support system (eclss)
  6. sheridan, 2002, Humans and Automation System Design and Research Issues
  7. 2017, S 442-National Aeronautics and Space Administration Transition Authorization Act of 2017
  8. 2009, H 264 for the Rest of Us

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Mellinkoff, B. J., Spydell, M. M., Bailey, W., & Burns, J. O.
Affiliations
University of Colorado Boulder (US)
ORCID
Burns, Jack O.
Venue
2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference
Publisher
IEEE
Published
2018-03
Pages
1-10
ISSN
1095-323X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1109/aero.2018.8396673
OpenAlex
W2762153709
Cited by
7
References
15
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 2
FWCI
2.03
Type
conference paper
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • IEEE Aerospace Conference (AERO) (publishedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders
  • National Aeronautics and Space Administration (80ARC017M0006)
  • Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute (80ARC017M0006)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Teleoperation and Haptic Systems
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Space Exploration and Technology
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Soil Mechanics and Vehicle Dynamics
Keywords
telerobotics, planetary surface exploration, Deep Space Gateway, cislunar space, video bandwidth, video latency, exploration time

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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