A Tale of Two Studies: The Best and Worst of YubiKey Usability
Open accessAbstract
Two-factor authentication (2FA) significantly improves the security of password-based authentication. Recently, there has been increased interest in Universal 2nd Factor (U2F) security keys-small hardware devices that require users to press a button on the security key to authenticate. To examine the usability of security keys in non-enterprise usage, we conducted two user studies of the YubiKey, a popular line of U2F security keys. The first study tasked 31 participants with configuring a Windows, Google, and Facebook account to authenticate using a YubiKey. This study revealed problems with setup instructions and workflow including users locking themselves out of their operating system or thinking they had successfully enabled 2FA when they had not. In contrast, the second study had 25 participants use a YubiKey in their daily lives over a period of four weeks, revealing that participants generally enjoyed the experience. Conducting both a laboratory and longitudinal study yielded insights into the usability of security keys that would not have been evident from either study in isolation. Based on our analysis, we recommend standardizing the setup process, enabling verification of success, allowing shared accounts, integrating with operating systems, and preventing lockouts.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The Yubico Security Key has already been the subject of studies in the past.
“we focused on the Yubico Security Key as the authentication device because it is the most popular end-user security key on the market and has already been the subject of studies in the past [40], [26], [25].”
From Is FIDO2 the Kingslayer of User Authentication? A Comparative Usability Study of FIDO2 Passwordless Authentication (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
The Abstract and Introduction report two studies of Yubico YubiKeys, supporting the claim that Yubico security keys have been studied. The Introduction specifies the models as YubiKey 4, YubiKey NEO, and YubiKey Nano; it does not establish that the particular device called the “Yubico Security Key” was studied. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe study focused on the Yubico Security Key as the authentication device.
“we focused on the Yubico Security Key as the authentication device because it is the most popular end-user security key on the market and has already been the subject of studies in the past [40], [26], [25].”
From Is FIDO2 the Kingslayer of User Authentication? A Comparative Usability Study of FIDO2 Passwordless Authentication (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
The Introduction says the paper studied Yubico security keys, supporting the citation as an example of prior research on such devices. But the Methodology identifies the devices as a YubiKey 4, YubiKey NEO, and YubiKey Nano—not a device identified as the Yubico Security Key. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior works encountered poor user experiences of Windows' support for security keys.
“Moreover, prior works encountered poor user experiences of Windows' support for security keys [40], which we wanted to avoid in our study”
From Is FIDO2 the Kingslayer of User Authentication? A Comparative Usability Study of FIDO2 Passwordless Authentication (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
The open-ended questions about general impressions were inspired by closest related work and adapted using best-practices from commercial UX testing and literature.
“Our open-ended questions about general impressions were inspired by closest related work [40] and adapted to our specific study setting using best-practices from commercial user experience testing [58] and literature [59] (e.g., recommendations for question form and wording).”
From Is FIDO2 the Kingslayer of User Authentication? A Comparative Usability Study of FIDO2 Passwordless Authentication (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
Prior work has identified the setup phase as problematic and recommended to study this phase separately.
“Prior work has identified the setup phase as problematic [40] and recommended to study this phase separately.”
From Is FIDO2 the Kingslayer of User Authentication? A Comparative Usability Study of FIDO2 Passwordless Authentication (2020) · cites this paper as [40]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2529310 · Cited by 81,148 · see citing works
SUS: A 'Quick and Dirty' Usability Scale
(1996) · Usability Evaluation In Industry · doi:10.1201/9781498710411-35 · Cited by 8,989 · see citing works
An Empirical Evaluation of the System Usability Scale
Bangor, A., Kortum, P. T., & Miller, J. T. (2008) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447310802205776 · Cited by 5,181 · see citing works
User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction
Anderson, N. S., Norman, D. A., & Draper, S. W. (1988) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422802 · Cited by 1,851 · see citing works
(2013) · Journal of Usability Studies archive · Cited by 1,357 · see citing works
The Quest to Replace Passwords: A Framework for Comparative Evaluation of Web Authentication Schemes
Bonneau, J., Herley, C., Oorschot, P. C. V., & Stajano, F. (2012) · 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy · doi:10.1109/sp.2012.44 · Cited by 1,110 · see citing works
A large-scale study of web password habits
Florencio, D., & Herley, C. (2007) · Proceedings of the 16th international conference on World Wide Web · doi:10.1145/1242572.1242661 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
A Comparison of Questionnaires for Assessing Website Usability
Tullis, T. S., & Stetson, J. N. (2004) · Cited by 571 · see citing works
Determining what individual SUS scores mean
(2009) · Journal of Usability Studies archive · doi:10.5555/2835587.2835589 · Cited by 412 · see citing works
The domino effect of password reuse
Ives, B., Walsh, K. R., & Schneider, H. (2004) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/975817.975820 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Gunson, N., Marshall, D., Morton, H., & Jack, M. (2011) · Computers & Security · doi:10.1016/j.cose.2010.12.001 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
The Password Thicket: Technical and Market Failures in Human Authentication on the Web.
Bonneau, J., & Preibusch, S. (2010) · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Sound-Proof: Usable Two-Factor Authentication Based on Ambient SoundPreprint
Karapanos, N., Marforio, C., Soriente, C., & Čapkun, S. (2015) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1503.03790 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
User perceptions of security, convenience and usability for ebanking authentication tokens
Weir, C. S., Douglas, G., Carruthers, M., & Jack, M. (2009) · Computers & Security · doi:10.1016/j.cose.2008.09.008 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Egelman, S., Jain, S., Portnoff, R. S., Liao, K., Consolvo, S., & Wagner, D. (2014) · Proceedings of the 2014 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security · doi:10.1145/2660267.2660273 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Biometric authentication on a mobile device: a study of user effort, error and task disruption
Trewin, S., Swart, C., Koved, L., Martino, J., Singh, K., & Ben-David, S. (2012) · Proceedings of the 28th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference · doi:10.1145/2420950.2420976 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
A diary study of password usage in daily life
Hayashi, E., & Hong, J. (2011) · ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) · doi:10.1145/1978942.1979326 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“I added '!' at the end to make it secure”: observing password creation in the lab
Ur, B., Noma, F., Bees, J., Segreti, S. M., Shay, R., Bauer, L., Christin, N., & Cranor, L. F. (2015) · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Weir, C. S., Douglas, G., Richardson, T., & Jack, M. (2010) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2009.10.001 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
A Comparative Usability Study of Two-Factor Authentication
Cristofaro, E. D., Du, H., Freudiger, J., & Norcie, G. (2014) · Workshop on Usable Security (USEC) · doi:10.14722/usec.2014.23025 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Krol, K., Philippou, E., Cristofaro, E. D., & Sasse, M. A. (2015) · Workshop on Usable Security (USEC) · doi:10.14722/usec.2015.23001 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Security keys: Practical cryptographic second factors for the modern web
Lang, J., Czeskis, A., Balfanz, D., Schilder, M., & Srinivas, S. (2017) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54970-4_25 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Ruoti, S., Roberts, B., & Seamons, K. E. (2015) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/2736277.2741683 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationPRODUCTIVITY AND USABILITY EFFECTS OF USING A TWO-FACTOR SECURITY SYSTEM
Strouble, D., Alan, M., & Alsop, S. (2009) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Why Do Developers Get Password Storage Wrong? A Qualitative Usability StudyPreprint
Naiakshina, A., Danilova, A., Tiefenau, C., Herzog, M., Dechand, S., & Smith, M. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1708.08759 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The usability of security devices
Coffetti, P., Piazzalunga, U., & Salvaneschi, P. (2004) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Phelps, L. (1997) · doi:10.1145/263367.263394 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 28 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- [9]9. S. Srinivas, D. Balfanz, E. Tiffany, and F. Alliance, "Universal 2nd Factor (U2F) Overview," FIDO Alliance Proposed Standard, pp. 1-5, 2015.
- [33]33. B. Dosono, J. Hayes, and Y. Wang, "'I'm stuck!': A Contextual Inquiry of People with Visual Impairments in Authentication." in Symposium On Usable Privacy and Security, 2015.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Ghorbani Lyastani, S., Schilling, M., Neumayr, M., Backes, M., & Bugiel, S. (2020) · 2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP) · doi:10.1109/sp40000.2020.00047 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Evaluating User Perception of Multi-Factor Authentication: A Systematic Review
Das, S., Wang, B., Tingle, Z., & Camp, L. J. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1908.05901 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Wiefling, S., Dürmuth, M., & Iacono, L. L. (2020) · Annual Computer Security Applications Conference · doi:10.1145/3427228.3427243 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Passphrase and keystroke dynamics authentication: Usable security
Bhana, B., & Flowerday, S. (2020) · Computers & Security · doi:10.1016/j.cose.2020.101925 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Comparative Analysis and Framework Evaluating Web Single Sign-on Systems
Alaca, F., & van Oorschot, P. C. (2020) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3409452 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Don't Punish all of us: Measuring User Attitudes about Two-Factor Authentication
Dutson, J., Allen, D., Eggett, D. L., & Seamons, K. E. (2019) · IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW) · doi:10.1109/eurospw.2019.00020 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationSaleem, H., & Naveed, M. (2020) · Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies · doi:10.2478/popets-2020-0067 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Modern Authentication Schemes in Smartphones and IoT Devices: An Empirical Survey
Ahvanooey, M. T., Zhu, M. X., Li, Q., Mazurczyk, W., Choo, K. R., Gupta, B. B., & Conti, M. (2021) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2021.3138073 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Exploring the meaning of usable security – a literature review
Lennartsson, M., Kävrestad, J., & Nohlberg, M. (2021) · Information and Computer Security · doi:10.1108/ics-10-2020-0167 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
MFA is A Necessary Chore!: Exploring User Mental Models of Multi-Factor Authentication Technologies
Das, S., Wang, B., Kim, A., & Camp, L. J. (2020) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2020.669 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Nah, it’s just annoying!” A Deep Dive into User Perceptions of Two-Factor Authentication
Marky, K., Ragozin, K., Chernyshov, G., Matviienko, A., Schmitz, M., Mühlhäuser, M., Eghtebas, C., & Kunze, K. S. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3503514 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Huaman, N., Klivan, S., Oltrogge, M., Acar, Y., & Fahl, S. (2021) · IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (S&P) · doi:10.1109/sp40001.2021.00094 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Wiefling, S., Dürmuth, M., & Iacono, L. L. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-64331-0_19 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Why Can't Johnny Fix Vulnerabilities: A Usability Evaluation of Static Analysis Tools for Security
Smith, J., Quang, L. N., & Murphy-Hill, E. R. (2020) · Symposium On Usable Privacy and Security · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Seiler-Hwang, S., Arias-Cabarcos, P., Marín, A., Almenáres, F., Díaz-Sánchez, D., & Becker, C. (2019) · Conference on Computer and Communications Security · doi:10.1145/3319535.3354192 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Should We Rush to Implement Password-less Single Factor FIDO2 based Authentication?
Alqubaisi, F., Wazan, A. S., Ahmad, L. A., & Chadwick, D. W. (2020) · Annual Undergraduate Research Conference on Applied Computing (URC) · doi:10.1109/urc49805.2020.9099190 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Empirical Measurement of Systemic 2FA Usability
Reynolds, J. K., Samarin, N., Barnes, J. D., Judd, T., Mason, J., Bailey, M., & Egelman, S. (2020) · USENIX Security Symposium · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationKlivan, S., Höltervennhoff, S., Huaman, N., Krause, A., Simko, L., Acar, Y., & Fahl, S. (2023) · ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) · doi:10.1145/3576915.3623180 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
FIDO2 the Rescue? Platform vs. Roaming Authentication on Smartphones
Janzen, L., Putz, F., Haesler, S., & Hollick, M. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580993 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Non-Inclusive Online Security: Older Adults' Experience with Two-Factor Authentication
Das, S., Jelen, B., Kim, A., Huber, L. L., & Camp, L. J. (2021) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2021.779 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A Survey on Trends of Two-Factor Authentication
Tirfe, D., & Anand, V. K. (2021) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4244-9_23 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Is FIDO2 Passwordless Authentication a Hype or for Real?: A Position Paper
Biçakcı, K., & Uzunay, Y. (2022) · International Conference on Information Security and Cryptography (ISCTURKEY) · doi:10.1109/iscturkey56345.2022.9931832 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Smart Storytelling: Video and Text Risk Communication to Increase MFA Acceptability
Das, S., Mare, S., & Camp, L. J. (2020) · IEEE International Conference on Collaboration and Internet Computing (CIC) · doi:10.1109/cic50333.2020.00027 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Examining usable security features and user perceptions of Physical Authentication Devices
Nanda, A., Jeong, J. J., Shah, S. W. A., Nosouhi, M. R., & Doss, R. (2023) · Computers & Security · doi:10.1016/j.cose.2023.103664 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Towards Implementing Inclusive Authentication Technologies for Older AdultsPreprint
Das, S., Kim, A., Jelen, B., Streiff, J., Camp, L. J., & Huber, L. L. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Let’s Authenticate: Automated Certificates for User Authentication
Conners, J., Devenport, C., Derbidge, S., Farnsworth, N., Gates, K., Lambert, S., McClain, C., Nichols, P., & Zappala, D. (2022) · Network and Distributed System Security Symposium · doi:10.14722/ndss.2022.24272 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Klivan, S., Höltervennhoff, S., Panskus, R., Marky, K., & Fahl, S. (2024) · IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (S&P) · doi:10.1109/sp54263.2024.00214 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
An In-Depth Analysis of Password Managers and Two-Factor Authentication Tools
Jubur, M., Shrestha, P. S., & Saxena, N. (2025) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3711117 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Lyastani, S. G., Michael Backes, A., & Bugiel, S. (2023) · Network and Distributed System Security Symposium · doi:10.14722/ndss.2023.23362 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Chakraborty, D., & Bugiel, S. (2019) · ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) · doi:10.1145/3319535.3363258 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
On the Usability of Authenticity Checks for Hardware Security Tokens
Pfeffer, K., Mai, A., Dabrowski, A., Gusenbauer, M., Schindler, P., Weippl, E. R., Franz, M., & Krombholz, K. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.60882/cispa.24613560 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Security Mandates are Pervasive: An Inter-School Study on Analyzing User Authentication Behavior
Das, S., Kim, A., Mare, S., Streiff, J., & Camp, L. J. (2019) · IEEE International Conference on Collaboration and Internet Computing (CIC) · doi:10.1109/cic48465.2019.00043 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Klemmer, J. H., Gutfleisch, M., Stransky, C., Acar, Y., Sasse, M. A., & Fahl, S. (2023) · ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) · doi:10.1145/3576915.3623072 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“You still use the password after all” – Exploring FIDO2 Security Keys in a Small Company
Farke, F. M., Lorenz, L., Schnitzler, T., Markert, P., & Dürmuth, M. (2020) · Symposium On Usable Privacy and Security · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Keil, M., Markert, P., & Dürmuth, M. (2022) · European Symposium on Usable Security (EuroUSEC) · doi:10.1145/3549015.3554208 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
İşler, D., Küpçü, A., & Coşkun, A. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-31500-9_7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Holtgrave, J.-U., Klivan, S., Marky, K., & Fahl, S. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713252 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Matzen, A., Rüffer, A., Byllemos, M., Heine, O., Παπαϊωάννου, Μ., Choudhary, G., & Dragoni, N. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15084414 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Das, S., Kim, A., & Camp, L. J. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-64331-0_21 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
Seamons, K. E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82786-1_8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationSecuring Instant Messages With Hardware-Based Cryptography and Authentication in Browser Extension
Rodrigues, G. A. P., Albuquerque, R. D. O., Alves, G. D. O., de Mendonça, F. L. L., Giozza, W. F., de Sousa, R. T., & Orozco, A. L. S. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2993774 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Persistent MobileApp-in-the-Middle (MAitM) attack
Catalano, C., & Tommasi, F. (2023) · Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques · doi:10.1007/s11416-023-00484-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Password-Based Credentials with Security Against Server Compromise
Dayanikli, D., & Lehmann, A. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50594-2_8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Exploring Authentication for Security-Sensitive Tasks on Smart Home Voice Assistants
Ponticello, A., Fassl, M., & Krombholz, K. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.60882/cispa.24613662 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Qahtani, E. A., Sahoo, L., Javed, Y., & Shehab, M. (2022) · ACM Symposium on Access Control Models and Technologies (SACMAT) · doi:10.1145/3532105.3535013 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rodriguez, S. D., Windl, M., Alt, F., & Marky, K. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713968 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Achilles: Efficient TEE-Assisted BFT Consensus via Rollback Resilient Recovery
Niu, J., Wen, X., Wu, G., Liu, S., Yu, J., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · European Conference on Computer Systems · doi:10.1145/3689031.3717457 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Human Performance in Google’s Two-factor Authentication Setup Process
Pandey, S., Taffese, T., Huang, M., & Byrne, M. D. (2019) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181319631348 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Mahdad, A. T., & Saxena, N. (2023) · ACM Conference on Security and Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks (WiSec) · doi:10.1145/3558482.3590183 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Vision: I don’t want to use my Phone! A Cognitive Walkthrough for YubiKeys
Bischoff, C., Gerlitz, E., & Smith, M. (2020) · IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW) · doi:10.1109/eurospw51379.2020.00029 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Video Messaging Campaigns to Use 2FA
Qahtani, E. A., Sahoo, L., & Shehab, M. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77392-2_24 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Defeating FIDO2/CTAP2/WebAuthn using browser in the middle and reflected cross site scripting
Catalano, C., Chezzi, A., Barletta, V. S., & Tommasi, F. (2025) · Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques · doi:10.1007/s11416-025-00556-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
No Password, No Problem? A Large-Scale Field Study of Passkey Adoption and Usage
Reittinger, T., & Pernul, G. (2026) · IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy · doi:10.1109/sp63933.2026.00022 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Passkey Promise: A Comparative Usability Study of MFA Methods
Kupris, E., & Schreck, T. (2026) · IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (S&P) · doi:10.1109/sp63933.2026.00055 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Baneș, V., Ravariu, C., Appasani, B., & Srinivasulu, A. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13179675 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
LIMBOCOIN: On the Denial-of-Service of Token based Retail CBDCs
Ahuja, A., Pani, S., Kanchanapalli, S., Vigneswaran, R., Rajan, M. A., & Lodha, S. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC) · doi:10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634471 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Using Performance Predictions to Evaluate Two-factor Authentication Setup Processes
Pandey, S. K., & Taffese, T. (2021) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181321651328 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
User Attitudes About DUO Two-Factor Authentication at BYU
Dutson, J. (2018) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Exploring the Meaning of “Usable Security”
Lennartsson, M., Kävrestad, J., & Nohlberg, M. (2020) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57404-8_19 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
FRACTAL: Single-Channel Multi-factor Transaction Authentication Through a Compromised Terminal
Sciancalepore, S., Raponi, S., Caldarola, D., & Pietro, R. D. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-15777-6_12 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zhang, Z., Abbott, J., & Camp, L. J. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4177411 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
An Efficient Design of a RFID Loginer System
Drif, M., Boussaadia, Y., Laieb, Z., Tellache, M., & Tounsi, M. L. (2025) · International Conference on Electronics, Energy and Measurement (IC2EM) · doi:10.1109/ic2em63689.2025.11101125 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Moving Beyond Passwords: Investigating the Effect of Digital Nudges on Passkey Adoption
Reittinger, T., Glas, M., & Pernul, G. (2026) · International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791425 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Jeong, J. J., Shah, S. W. A., Nanda, A., Doss, R., Nosouhi, M. R., & Webb, J. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2024.3421538 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tiefenau, E., Grohs, J. A., Häring, M., Smith, M., & Tiefenau, C. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3714245 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Where to Look for What You See Is What You Sign? User Confusion in Transaction Security
Haupert, V., & Gabert, S. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29959-0_21 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lab Study Dataset: FIDO2 Platform and Roaming Authentication on Smartphones
Janzen, L., Putz, F., Haesler, S., & Hollick, M. (2023) · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.7572696 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Decreasing Physical Access Bottlenecks through Context-Driven Authentication
Lebea, K., & Leung, W. S. (2023) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-38530-8_23
Klemmer, J. H., Gutfleisch, M., Stransky, C., Acar, Y., Sasse, M. A., & Fahl, S. (2023) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2309.00744
Two-Factor Authentication with Backup Codes for Webspace
Larue, J.-P., Alrashdan, M. T., & Waheeb, W. (2023) · International Conference on Integrated Intelligence and Communication Systems (ICIICS) · doi:10.1109/iciics59993.2023.10421669
Strong Federated Authentication With Password-Based Credential Against Identity Server Corruption
Jiang, C., Xu, C., Yang, G., Duan, L., & Wang, J. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-9101-2_2
Skauge, S. L., Rosnes, M., Skoeng, M., & Sandnes, F. E. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93848-1_16
Nicholson, J. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52643-5_176-1
Passkeys and Fido2: Security, Usability and Deployment of Passwordless Authentication
Sakhtipriyanka, V. (2026) · International Journal of Information Technology Research Studies (IJITRS) · doi:10.63090/ijitrs/3139.3209.0041
- Authors
- Reynolds, J., Smith, T., Reese, K., Dickinson, L., Ruoti, S., & Seamons, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Brigham Young University (US)
- MIT Lincoln Laboratory (US)
- Venue
- 2018 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)
- Publisher
- IEEE
- Published
- 2018-05
- Pages
- 872-888
- ISSN
- 1081-6011 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2794591479
- Cited by
- 73
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 7.06
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (S&P) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1528022)
- Sandia National Laboratories
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › User Authentication and Security Systems
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Advanced Authentication Protocols Security
- Keywords
- two-factor authentication, hardware authentication, account lockout, user experience, operating system integration
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
