The methodology of Focus Groups: the importance of interaction between research participants

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The card game encourages everyone to talk as each participant reads out a statement in turn, and the material existence of the cards seemed to embolden some people.

“Tbe card game also encourages everyone to talk as eacb participant reads out a statement in tum and tbe matedal existence of tbe cards seemed to embolden some people.”

May combine two claims.

In a review of over 40 published reports of focus group studies, none concentrated on conversation between participants and very few included quotations from more than one participant at a time.

“Reviewing over 40 publisbed reports of 'focus group studies' I could not find a single one concentrating on tbe conversation between participants and very few tbat even included any quotations from more tban one participant at a time.”

May combine two claims.

Participants in any single focus group are never completely homogeneous, and differences among individuals are important and seldom vanish.

“Regardless of bow tbey are seiected, tbe researcb participants in any one group are never entireiy bomogenous.”

May combine two claims.

Such unexpected disagreement prompted participants to explain their reasoning, often pointing to personal experiences that had changed their opinions or specific events that made them reconsider their views.

“Sucb unexpected dissent led tbem to ciadfy wby tbey tbougbt as tbey did, often identifying aspects of tbeir personal expedence wbicb bad altered tbeir opinions or specific occasions wbicb bad made tbem re-tbink tbeir point of view.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

During the AIDS project, group participants argued, boasted, made faces, told stories, and on one occasion sang songs.

“Dudng tbe course of tbe AIDS project group participants argued, boasted, made faces at each otber, told stodes and on one occasion, sang songs.”

May combine two claims.

In the authors' general population groups, tales about the vengeful AIDS carrier were not often used to advise people to take precautions during sex with anyone; instead they served to justify identifying and isolating AIDS carriers.

“If sucb stodes do serve sucb functions it is certainly not all tbey do: in our 'general population' groups sucb tales were not often used to advise people to take precautions dudng sex witb anyone -instead tbey were used to justify identifying and isolating 'AIDS carders'.”

May combine two claims.

Seeing a card placed under the wrong category makes a dissenting individual twitch and often move the card before articulating dissent.

“Seeing tbe card pbysically placed under tbe 'wrong' category makes tbe dissenting individual twitcb -often tbey bave reacbed out and moved tbe card even before tbey bave been able to articulate tbeir dissent.”

May combine two claims.

The card exercises provided invaluable data from each group and allowed cross-comparisons between groups.

“Sucb exercises not only provided invaluable data from eacb group but allow for some cross-compadsons between groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Brainstorming and loose word association were frequent features of the research sessions.

“Brainstorming and loose word association was a frequent feature of tbe researcb sessions.”

May combine two claims.

When group dynamics worked well, co-participants acted as coresearchers, taking the research in new and unexpected directions and engaging in both complementary and argumentative interaction.

“Wben group dynamics worked well tbe co-participants acted as coresearcbers taking tbe researcb into new and often unexpected directions and engaging in interaction wbicb were botb complementary (sucb as sbadng common expedences) and argimientative (questioning, cballenging, and disagreeing witb eacb otber).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

At the very least, the exercises served as a party game, warming up participants and encouraging them to engage with one another.

“At tbe very least sucb exercises served as a 'party game': 'warming up' partidpants and encouraging tbem to engage witb one anotber.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Some people do not like party games, and at worst such games could make people uncomfortable and remind some participants of school lessons.

“Unfortunately some peopie, of course, do not like party games and at worst sucb games could make people feel uncomfortable and reminded some researcb participants of school lessons!”

May combine two claims.

The theory that people whose vocabulary lacks the term HIV may be unable to comprehend the distinction between symptom-free HIV antibody positive status and an AIDS diagnosis was not supported; data from the AIDS Media Research Project show people could understand the distinction without accurate medical language, and vice versa.

“Tbis did not prove to be tbe case.Data from tbe AIDS Media Researcb Project sbow tbat peopie couid understand tbe distinction witbout possessing tbe accurate medicai language (and vice versa).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Group work can discriminate against people with communication disabilities.

“Group work can, however, discdminate against people with communication disabilities.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In a debate between two school students, lack of linguistic specificity, using terms like carrying it and having it, confused the discussion and side-tracked it via an inappropriate metaphor.

“Tbe debate quickly became confused by tbe lack of linguistic specificity.Botb boys resort to terms sucb as 'carrying it' and 'baving it' and tbe discussion became bopelessly side-tracked by an inappropdate metapbor.”

May combine two claims.

This interaction was typical of many turning points in the groups; people commonly appeared to change their minds in response to personal evidence from anecdotes or perceived professional behaviour rather than leaflets or advertisements, and a clear hierarchy of credibility operated among different types of sources.

“Tbis interaction was typicai of many of tbe 'turning points' in tbe groups.People commonly appeared to cbange tbeir minds in responded to 'personal' evidence based on anecdotes or tbe perceived bebaviour of professionals ratber tban information from leaflets or advertisements and tbere was a clear 'bierarcby of credibility' in operation between different types of sources”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The final layout of the cards is not important; the process of getting there is revealing.

“Tbe final layout of tbe cards is not important -it is tbe process of getting tbere wbicb is revealing.”

May combine two claims.

The enthusiasm with which some people acted out the look of an AIDS carrier demonstrates the voyeuristic fascination of the Face of AIDS and how some media images are reproduced and reinforced through social interaction.

“On tbe contrary, tbe enthusiasm witb wbicb some peopie acted out 'tbe iook of an AIDS carder' vividly demonstrates the voyeudstic fascination of 'the Face of AIDS' and tbe way in wbicb some media images are reproduced, reinforced and reiterated tbrougb sociai interaction.”

May combine two claims.

Focus groups allow differences of opinion to be explored in situ with participants' help, whereas interview data might have led to armchair theorizing about the causes of such differences.

“Had tbe data been collected by interviews tbe researcber migbt bave been faced witb 'armcbair' tbeodsing about tbe causes of sucb difference but in a focus group tbese can be explored 'in situ' witb tbe belp of tbe researcb participants.”

May combine two claims.

Focus groups are artificially set up situations, although they may at times approximate participant observation.

“It is important to note tbat althougb, at times, the focus groups may approximate to participant observation tbe focus groups are artifidally set up situations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Once a participant has moved a card, the onus is on them to explain their reasoning.

“Once baving done so tbe onus is upon tbem to explain tbeir reasoning.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Focus groups are distinguished from the broader category of group interviews by the explicit use of group interaction as research data.

“Cmdally, focus groups are distinguisbed from tbe broader category of group interviews by 'tbe explicit use of tbe group interaction' as researcb data (see Merton 1956 and Morgan 1988: 12).”

• cites Merton 1956Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Morgan 1988Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The relish with which people swapped information about saliva needed to pose infection risk highlights the potency of the yuk factor in recall and suggests potential for harnessing peer communication.

“Tbe reiisb witb wbicb people swapped information about tbe vast quantities of saiiva needed to pose any dsk of infection bigbligbts tbe potency of tbe 'yuk' factor in beiping tbem to recaii certain 'facts' about AIDS and suggest tbe potential of bamessing peer communication.”

May combine two claims.

When group work is explicitly included in research, it is often used merely to illustrate a theory generated by other methods or as a cost-effective way to interview several people at once.

“Even wben group work is explicitly included as part of tbe researcb it is often simply employed as a convenient way to illustrate a tbeory generated by otber metbods or as a cost-effective tecbnique for interviewing several people at once.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Natural clusterings at work, social events or in the home, along with mass media, provide part of the scripting for people's response to AIDS in Britain.

“In tbe same way such 'natural clusterings' at work, social events or in tbe bome (along with tbe mass media) provide part of tbe 'scdpting' for people's response to AIDS in Bdtain.”

• cites Khan and Manderson 1992Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Listening to discussions between participants gives the researcher time to acclimatise to participants' preferred words and prevents premature closing off of meaning.

“In fact, listening to discussions between partidpants gives tbe researcber time to acclimatise to, for example, tbeir preferred words for speaking ab)out sex and prevents tbe researcber from prematurely closing off tbe generation of meaning in ber own searcb for cladfication.”

May combine two claims.

Differences among participants enable observation of how people theorize their own viewpoints in relation to other perspectives and how they put their ideas to work, and this process clarifies what people are saying.

“Tbe difference between partidpants also allows one to observe not only how peopie tbeodse tbeir own point of view but how tbey do so in reiation to otber perspectives and bow tbey put tbeir own ideas 'to work'.Tbis process in itseif cladfies wbat peopie are saying.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

May combine two claims.

Group work is suited to grounded theory development, focusing on generation rather than testing of theory and exploring participants' categories.

“Group work is invaluable for 'grounded tbeory development -focusing on tbe generation ratber tban tbe testing of tbeory and explodng tbe categories wbicb the participants use to order tbeir expedence (Glaszer and Strauss 1967).”

• cites Glaszer and Strauss 1967Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Group work has not been systematically developed as a research technique within social science, and group interviews are rarely acknowledged as part of the research process.

“However, group work has not been systematically developed as a researcb tecbnique witbin social science in general and altbougb group interviews bave often implicitly informed researcb tbey are rarely acknowledged as part of tbe process (see Frey and Fontana 1991: 177).”

• cites Frey and Fontana 1991Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Many focus group studies rely on no more than 4 or 5 groups, which may be adequate when working with particular populations.

“Many 'focus group studies' rely on no more tban 4 or 5 groups, and tbis may be a perfectly adequate number wben working witb particular populations.”

May combine two claims.

Each discussion session has its own dynamic and direction, so a common external reference point such as the card game or vignettes is useful for analysis.

“Eacb discussion session bas its own dynamic and direction -wben it comes to analysis it is extremely useful to bave a common extemal reference point sucb as tbat provided by tbe card game or tbe use of vignettes (Kban and Manderson 1992).”

• cites Khan and Manderson 1992Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Focus groups are distinguished from one-to-one interviews and questionnaires by the interaction between research participants.

“It concentrates on tbe one feature wbicb inevitably distinguisbes focus groups from one-to-one interviews or questionnaires -namely the interaction between research participants”

May combine two claims.

Flatmates, colleagues, family and friends are the people with whom one might naturally discuss topics such as AIDS, and these relationships are major sites of collective remembering.

“Flatmates, colleagues, family and fdends -tbese are precisely tbe people witb wbom one migbt 'naturally' discuss sucb topics, at least in passing, and tbese are major sites of 'collective remembedng' (see Middleton and Edwards 1990).”

• cites Middleton and Edwards 1990Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Some researchers have noted that heterosexual men are more likely to express macho attitudes with a male researcher or to sexually harass a female researcher in group settings than in individual interviews.

“Compadng tbe effects of different metbodologies wben talking to beterosextiai men about sex, for exampie, some researcbers have noted tbat tbese researcb participants are more iikeiy to express macbo attitudes (witb a maie researcber) or to sexually barass (a femaie researcber) in group settings tban in individuai interviews (Wigbt in press; Green et ai. in press).”

• cites Wigbt in pressNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Green et ai. in pressNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Such interactions help researchers identify the precise influence of particular words or phrases and are invaluable when designing or improving health education or other intervention strategies.

“Sucb interactions beip researcbers to identify tbe precise influence of particuiar words or pbrases and are invaluable wben attempting to design or improve bealtb education or otber intervention strategies.”

May combine two claims.

Through detailed attention to interaction between group members, a researcher can explore difference between participants in situ and, because participants reflect upon each other's ideas, ensure that the data is organic and interconnected.

“• expiore difference between group participants in situ witb tbem and, because, participants reflect upon each otbers ideas, ensure tbat tbe data is organic/interconnected.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

May combine two claims.

Different types of discourses may be expressed in the private and public arena, or with peers versus with an interviewer.

“Instead of disregarding data from group settings we need to acknowledge tbe different types of discourses tbat may be expressed in tbe 'pdvate' and 'pubiic' arena, or witb peers versus with an interviewer.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

May combine two claims.

Focus groups are perfect for filling in the gaps exposed by KAP surveys and are ideal for inductive approaches aimed at generating concepts and hypotheses, which may have more potential for health education research, theory and practice than the dominant deductive models.

“As sucb focus groups are perfect for 'fiiiing in tbe gaps' so often exposed by KAP surveys and are ideai for inductive approacbes aimed at generating concepts and bypotbeses wbicb, as Muiien and Reynoids point out, may bave far more potentiai for beaitb education researcb, tbeory and practice tban tbe dominant deductive modeis (Muiien and Reynolds cited in Bascb 1987:435).”

• cites Muiien and Reynolds cited in Bascb 1987:435Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Focus groups are particularly suited to the study of attitudes and cognition, whereas participant observation may be more appropriate for studies of social roles and formal organisations.

“I agree with Morgan, however, when he suggests that focus group are particularly suited to the study of attitudes and cognition whereas participant observation may be more appropriate for studies of social roles and formal organisations (Morgan 1988, 17).”

• cites Morgan 1988, 17Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

When researchers want to explore people's understandings or influence them, it makes sense to employ methods that actively encourage examination of social processes in action.

“Wben researcbers want to explore people's understandings, or to influence tbem, it makes sense to employ metbods wbicb actively encourage tbe examination of tbese social processes in action.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Uncovering people's own models of rationality and understanding their perspective is integral to achieving empowerment in health education, and focus group interviews are an appropriate method for understanding and developing sensitivity toward those served.

“Uncovedng people's own 'models of rationality' and understanding their perspective 'is integral to achieve a key goal of health education -empowerment -and focus group interviews are an appropdate method for understanding and developing sensitivity toward those we serve' (Basch 1987, 436).”

• cites Basch 1987, 436Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

May combine two claims.

Completion of questionnaires helped maximise subsequent debate and encouraged research participants to express their own point of view, because writing things down reinforces a person's commitment to contributing them to the group, even in the face of apparent disapproval.

“Completion of questionnaires also helped to maximise subsequent debate and to encourage research participants to express their own point of view because, as other authors have noted, 'the process of writing things down reinforces a person's commitment to contributing them to the group, even in the face of apparent disapproval' (Morgan 1988, 58, Greenbaum 1987).”

• cites Morgan 1988, 58Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Greenbaum 1987Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Interaction can encourage open conversation about embarrassing subjects and facilitate expression of ideas and experiences that might be left underdeveloped in an interview.

“• Can encourage open conversation about embarrassing subjects and faciiitate tbe expression of ideas and expedences tbat migbt be ieft underdeveloped in an interview”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Through detailed attention to interaction, a researcher can explore the arguments people use against each other, identify factors that influence individuals to change their minds, and document how facts and stories operate in practice-what ideological work they do.

“• expiore tbe arguments peopie use against eacb otber, identify tbe factors wbicb influence individuais to cbange tbeir minds and document bow facts and stodes operate in practice -wbat ideological work tbey do.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

May combine two claims.

Focus groups do not easily tap into individual biographies or the minutiae of decision making during intimate moments, but they do examine how knowledge and, more importantly, ideas develop and operate within a given cultural context.

“Focus groups do not easiiy tap into individuai biograpbies or tbe minutia of decision making dudng intimate moments, but tbey do examine bow knowiedge and, more importantly, ideas botb develop, and operate, witbin a given cultural context.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.

May combine two claims.

The article is based on the premise that all talk through which people generate meaning is contextual, and that contexts will inevitably somewhat colour the meaning.

“instead it is based on tbe premise tbat 'all talk tbrougb whicb people generate meaning is contextual, and tbat tbe contexts will inevitably somewbat colour tbe meaning' (Dablgren 1988:292).”

• cites Dablgren 1988:292Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Particular groups facilitate the articulation of particular kinds of perspectives, and this context can be consciously addressed.

“Tbe fact tbat particular groups faciiitate tbe articuiation of particuiar kinds of perspectives can tben be consdousiy addressed and tbe importance of tbat context can be considered.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People are not self-contained, isolated, static entities; they are part of complex and overlapping social, familial and collegiate networks.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Personal behaviour is not cut off from public discourses and actions do not happen in a cultural vacuum.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People learn about meanings through talking with and observing others, and act on knowledge in a social context.