Qualitative research. Introducing focus groups.
Open accessAbstract
This paper introduces focus group methodology, gives advice on group composition, running the groups, and analysing the results. Focus groups have advantages for researchers in the field of health and medicine: they do not discriminate against people who cannot read or write and they can encourage participation from people reluctant to be interviewed on their own or who feel they have nothing to say.
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Interviews and focus groups foster collaboration and inclusivity, especially when paired with critical assessment frameworks that emphasize equity and representation.
“Such methods foster collaboration and inclusivity (Kitzinger, 1995), especially when paired with critical assessment frameworks that emphasize equity and representation.”
From Beyond Numbers (2025) · cites this paper as Kitzinger, 1995
The 'educational alliance' conceptual model describes a supportive educational relationship upheld by the alignment of values and learning intentions.
“The ' educational alliance ' conceptual model describes a supportive educational relationship upheld by the alignment of values and learning intentions. 33”
From Medical student perceptions of feedback and feedback behaviors within the context of the “educational alliance.” (2017) · cites this paper as [33]
The learner's perception of the educational relationship between the educator and the learner is the key determinant of the educational alliance's success.
“The learner's perception of the educational relationship between the educator and the learner is the key determinant of the educational alliance's success . 32-34”
From Medical student perceptions of feedback and feedback behaviors within the context of the “educational alliance.” (2017) · cites this paper as [33]
Using the framework of the 'educational alliance,' Telio et al conceptualize feedback as a process of 'negotiation' within which both parties share a mutual understanding of the learner's goals as well as an agreement on responsibilities for reaching those goals.
“Using the framework of the ' educational alliance, ' they conceptualize feedback as a process of 'negotiation' within which both parties share a mutual understanding of the lear ner's goals as well as an agreement on responsibilities for reaching those goals. 33”
From Medical student perceptions of feedback and feedback behaviors within the context of the “educational alliance.” (2017) · cites this paper as [33]
Core principles from the therapeutic alliance form the educational alliance and are underpinned by a mutual understanding of purpose.
“Core principles from the therapeutic alliance form the educational alliance and are underpinned by a mutual understanding of purpose. 33,45”
From Medical student perceptions of feedback and feedback behaviors within the context of the “educational alliance.” (2017) · cites this paper as [33]
Our findings validate other core principles underpinning the educational alliance concept, with learners identifying their relationships with educators as major determinants in the feedback process.
“Our findings validate other core principles underpinning the educational alliance concept, 33 with learners identifying their relationships with educators as major determinants in the feedback process.”
From Medical student perceptions of feedback and feedback behaviors within the context of the “educational alliance.” (2017) · cites this paper as [33]
Researchers have published or presented criteria on how to evaluate qualitative research in health literature in general and in the development of PROs in particular.
“Researchers have published or presented criteria on how to evaluate qualitative research in health literature in general and in the development of PROs in particular [12–16].”
From PRO development: rigorous qualitative research as the crucial foundation (2010) · cites this paper as [12]
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Poplas Susič, T., Kersnik, J., & Kolšek, M. (2010) · Wiener klinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1007/s00508-010-1335-z · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Electronic government and online tasks: Towards the autonomy and empowerment of senior citizens
Abad-Alcalá, L., Llorente-Barroso, C., Sánchez-Valle, M., Viñarás-Abad, M., & Pretel-Jiménez, M. (2017) · El Profesional de la Información · doi:10.3145/epi.2017.ene.04 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Rise, M. B., Gismervik, S. Ø., Johnsen, R., & Fimland, M. S. (2015) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-015-1190-8 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
van der Gaag, A., Jago, R., Gallagher, A., Stathis, K., Webster, M., & Austin, Z. (2023) · Journal of Nursing Regulation · doi:10.1016/s2155-8256(23)00087-x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Insights on biology student motivations and challenges when reading and analyzing primary literature
Howard, K. N., Stapleton, E. K., Nelms, A. A., Ryan, K. C., & Segura-Totten, M. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251275 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
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“The cord is the child”: meanings and practices related to umbilical cord care in Central Uganda
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Harrison, K., & Gill, A. K. (2018) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azx027 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Exploring the impact of digital professionalism awareness training on dental undergraduate students
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Long-term mentors’ perceptions of building mentoring relationships with at-risk youth
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- Authors
- Kitzinger, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Glasgow (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Kitzinger, Jenny
- ORCID
- Kitzinger, Jenny
- Venue
- BMJ
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 1995-07-29
- Volume
- 311
- Issue
- 7000
- Pages
- 299-302
- ISSN
- 0007-1447 (ISSN-L)
- 0959-8138
- 1468-5833
- PMC
- PMC2550365
- OpenAlex
- W2104971230
- Cited by
- 6,939
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 312 · 2025: 279 · 2024: 328 · 2023: 295 · 2022: 286 · 2021: 361 · 2020: 401 · 2019: 385 · 2018: 329 · 2017: 367 · 2016: 361 · 2015: 366 · 2014: 370 · 2013: 331 · 2012: 371
- FWCI
- 103.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.bmj.com/company/legal-information/terms-conditions/legal-information/tdm-licencepolicy (tdm)
- Locations
- BMJ (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Focus Groups and Qualitative Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative Research Methods and Applications
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Delphi Technique in Research
- Keywords
- focus groups, group composition, group facilitation, qualitative data analysis, health research, medical research, participant recruitment
- MeSH terms
- Communication, United Kingdom, Group Processes, Health Services Research, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Focus Groups
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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