The DOI matches its Crossref record; 55 of the 55 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 22 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
#Ferguson: Digital protest, hashtag ethnography, and the racial politics of social media in the United States
Open accessAbstract
As thousands of demonstrators took to the streets of Ferguson, Missouri, to protest the fatal police shooting of unarmed African American teenager Michael Brown in the summer of 2014, news and commentary on the shooting, the protests, and the militarized response that followed circulated widely through social media networks. Through a theorization of hashtag usage, we discuss how and why social media platforms have become powerful sites for documenting and challenging episodes of police brutality and the misrepresentation of racialized bodies in mainstream media.
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Claims the paper makes
1 of 22 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Social media create a distorted view of events, such that we only get the perspective of the people who are already in our social network (Garret and Resnick 2011; Pariser 2012; Sunstein 2009).”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Garret and Resnick 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper’s opening discussion (page unavailable) describes a Digg news stream containing only articles voted for by a reader’s designated friends and warns that following only like-minded friends may prevent exposure to challenging articles. But it presents this as a conditional risk, not as an inevitable effect of social media or proof that people see only their existing network’s perspective; the paper also argues that personalization can increase exposure to diverse views. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pariser 2012 source
- Not matchedcites Sunstein 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In response, Twitter users began using the hashtag #NoAngel to highlight the mainstream media's inability to acknowledge the possibility of black victimhood or innocence.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Initial activism around Michael Brown thus revolved around the hashtag #HandsUpDontShoot, often accompanied by photos of individuals or groups of people with their hands up.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Eyewitness reports said Michael Brown had his hands up in surrender and uttered 'don't shoot' before he was shot and killed by Officer Darren Wilson.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, once Ferguson had stabilized as an important news event, many began tweeting about the events without necessarily marking their posts with a hashtag.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Twitter also became a site in which to draw connections between what was taking place in Ferguson and state-sanctioned violence in other political contexts.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, recognizing that hashstags can only ever offer a limited, partial, and filtered view of a social world does not require abandoning them as sites of analysis.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“the percentage of African Americans who use Twitter (22 percent) is much higher than that of white Americans (16 percent; Bryers 2014).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bryers 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“#Ferguson and its attendant live streams created a similar feeling of shared temporality-particularly during the protests and confrontations with police.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, some of the most important hashtag campaigns emerging out of #Ferguson were targeted at calling attention to both police practices and media representations, suggesting that social media can serve as an important tool for challenging these various forms of racial profiling.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Twitter allows users who are territorially displaced to feel like they are united across both space and time.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
- It may state two separate claims as one. 11
In the paper
“As an article in USA Today documents, over the course of the Ferguson events, Antonio French experienced a huge surge in popularity, going from around four thousand to 121 thousand followers in less than a month.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mandaro 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the context of #Ferguson, particular users, such as Antonio French (alderman of St. Louis's 21st Ward) and Wesley Lowery (a reporter for the Washington Post), emerged as key informants whose on-theground accounts in Ferguson were retweeted by thousands of Twitter users.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mandaro 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The protests in Ferguson did not quickly fade.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ferguson October 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Once again, the media focused not on state action but on the worthiness of black bodies.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“While there were, overall, many more news articles written about Ferguson than about the Ice Bucket Challenge in August of 2014, stories about Ferguson generated an average of 256 Facebook referrals compared with 2,106 referrals for stories about the Ice Bucket Challenge.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McDermott 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“However, it is worth noting that many who tweeted about #Ferguson from outside Missouri eventually felt the need to visit the town of Ferguson and noted a sharp difference between these two sites.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Browne 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Cooper 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Social movements have long used media and technology to disseminate, escalate, and enlarge the scope of their struggles: Transistor radios allowed Cuban guerrilla fighters to transmit from the Sierra Maestra; television coverage transformed the riots in Selma, Alabama, into a national event; and e-mail accounts allowed Zapatistas in Chiapas to launch global communiqués.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“#Ferguson did what many of these other tools did: It allowed a message to get out, called global attention to a small corner of the world, and at-tempted to bring visibility and accountability to repressive forces.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to these intertextual considerations, hashtags also have the interdiscursive capacity to lasso accompanying texts and their indexical meanings as part of a frame.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas in most mainstream media contexts the experiences of racialized populations are overdetermined, stereotyped, or tokenized, social media platforms such as Twitter offer sites for collectively constructing counternarratives and reimagining group identities.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Through this campaign, users sought to call attention to the arbitrary nature of racialized policing, the vulnerability of black bodies, and the problematic ways in which blackness is perceived as a constant threat.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, hashtags have the intertextual potential to link a broad range of tweets on a given topic or disparate topics as part of an intertextual chain, regardless of whether, from a given perspective, these tweets have anything to do with one another.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“One of the differences between Twitter and these earlier forms of technology, however, is its multivocality and dialogicality (Bakhtin 1981).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bakhtin 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“It was partly because of this heightened temporality that, as others have noted, the news surrounding Michael Brown's death dominated Twitter much more than Facebook.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [22] du Toit, 1980, Ethics, Informed Consent, and Fieldwork, Journal of Anthropological Research source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to understand #BlackLivesMatter not simply as a general statement about the inherent value of black life in the face of state-sanctioned racial violence but also as a reflection of the ways that social media can become a site for the revaluation of black materiality.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This inversion underscores the significance of affirming that #BlackLivesMatter in a context where they are disproportionately viewed as threats by state forces and mainstream institutions.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, there are powerful coordinating relationships between digital and offline contexts such as #Ferguson and Ferguson proper as well as relationships between digital modalities such as the circulation of information via Twitter and cellular text messages.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Collectively, these interdiscursivities constitute the mediatized eventness of #Ferguson (Agha 2011) and the potential ways it can be recontextualized in relation to other such particular events and genres of events (Briggs and Bauman 1992).”
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“John Postill (2014) has noted the ways that the use of multiple, novel hashtags reflects savvy social media users' understanding that Twitter rewards novelty over raw numbers in its trending algorithms.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Postill 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Wilson's reverse logic, sanctioned by the state, presents a narrative in which an unarmed teenager is a terrifying aggressor and an armed police officer is an innocent victim.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is thus important to recognize that the reactions to the death of Michael Brown did not spark in a vacuum; they were fueled by accumulated frustrations over previously mediatized moments of injustice and guided by previous digital campaigns.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This event made clear once again state agents' distorted views of black Americans, especially teenagers-how their very bodies are perceived as looming, larger-than-life threats and how any objects in their possession (e.g., candies, sodas, toys, articles of clothing) are read as weapons.”
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The use of hashtags such as #HandsUpDontShoot, #IfTheyGunnedMeDown, and #NoAngel speak to the long history of inaccurate and unfair portrayal of African Americans within mainstream media and to the systematic profiling and victim blaming suffered by racializied bodies.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“That is, the publicness and counterpublicness (Warner 2002) of #Ferguson must be understood as a performative context with the potential to be mobilized as part of social projects across individual and collective scales.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Warner 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Here, ideas about race transform not just a sign's value (e.g., as a relatively unremarkable piece of clothing or a sartorial practice associated with criminality, as in the case of the hoodie) but the fundamental ontology of a given sign (e.g., as a bag of candy or a gun, a can of iced tea or drug paraphernalia), thus reflecting the semiotic power of race and racialization (Rosa 2010).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rosa 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
Eyewitness reports said Michael Brown had his hands up in surrender and uttered 'don't shoot' before he was shot and killed by Officer Darren Wilson.
“The first of these campaigns was inspired by eyewitness reports that Michael Brown had his hands up in the air as a sign of surrender and had uttered the words don't shoot just before he was shot and killed by Officer Darren Wilson.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is a long history of state-sanctioned violence against racialized populations in the United States.
“the long history of state-sanctioned violence against racialized populations”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similarly, the #BlackLivesMatter campaign in the United States sought to make visible the long neglected victims of police violence, in part through the circulation of hashtags such as #IfIDieInPolice-Custody and #SayTheirNames, that ask readers to imagine themselves in the place of and join together with the voices of the deceased (Bonilla and Rosa 2015).”
From Exhuming Dead Persons: Forensic Science and the Making of Post-fascist Publics in Spain (2020) · cites this paper as Bonilla and Rosa 2015
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Augé citation year conflicts with reference list
MinorThe text cites Augé's work as published in 2009, but the corresponding reference lists 1995.
“Is Twitter the ultimate "non-place" (Augé 2009) of super modernity”
“Augé, Marc 1995 Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Super- modernity.”
Citations
Cites
The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays
Thompson, E. M., Bakhtin, M. M., Holquist, M., Emerson, C. G., & Holquist, M. (1981) · World Literature Today · doi:10.2307/40136453 · Cited by 9,747
boyd, D., & Crawford, K. (2012) · Information, Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2012.678878 · Cited by 5,479
Warner, M. (2002) · Public Culture · doi:10.1215/08992363-14-1-49 · Cited by 3,862
Non-places: Introduction to an anthropology of supermodernity
Harvie, D. (1996) · Capital & Class · doi:10.1177/030981689606000111 · Cited by 2,845
Warner, M. (2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3110 · Cited by 2,459
FILTER BUBBLE: Wie wir im Internet entmündigt werden
Pariser, E. (2012) · doi:10.3139/9783446431164 · Cited by 1,849
Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science
Mitchell, J. P., Gupta, A., & Ferguson, J. (1999) · Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute · doi:10.2307/2661203 · Cited by 1,560
Coming of age in Second Life: an anthropologist explores the virtually human
Boellstorff, T. (2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-5685 · Cited by 1,421
Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation
Sewell Jr., W. H. (2005) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226749198.001.0001 · Cited by 1,410
The filter bubble: how the new personalized web is changing what we read and how we think
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-0926 · Cited by 1,319
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- 2009, Citizen Journalism: Global Perspectives
- Bonilla , Yarimar Non-Sovereign Futures: French Caribbean Politics in the Wake of Disenchantment Chicago University of Chicago Press
- Horst, 2012, Digital Anthropology
- 2003, States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection
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Metadata
- Authors
- BONILLA, Y., & ROSA, J.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Corresponding author
- BONILLA, YARIMAR
- ROSA, JONATHAN
- Venue
- American Ethnologist
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2015-01-15
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 4-17
- ISSN
- 0094-0496 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2021905382
- Cited by
- 1,116
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 118 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 116 · 2020: 236 · 2019: 120 · 2018: 106 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 10
- FWCI
- 240.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Ethnologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Race, History, and American Society
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Feminism, and Media
- Keywords
- Ferguson protests, hashtag activism, online protest, social media, police brutality, racialized bodies, Michael Brown, racial politics, political temporality, media representation of race, police militarization, social movements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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