Recentering action in critical consciousness
Open accessAbstract
Scholarship on critical consciousness frames how people who are more marginalized deeply analyze, feel empowered to change, and take collective action to redress perceived inequities. These three dimensions correspond to critical reflection, motivation, and action, respectively. In this article, we aim to recenter action in scholarship on critical consciousness, given the disproportionate attention that has been paid to reflection. To achieve this aim, we review empirical associations between critical action and positive developmental consequences among more marginalized youth, highlight promising practices to foster critical action, and identify questions and key areas for inquiry. We hope this article motivates a recentering of critical action in scholarship, policy, and practice on critical consciousness.
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Among the articles that centered around individual assignments, a collective attention toward engaging students' critical consciousness was noted.
“Among the articles that centered around individual assignments (44, 45, 49, 60), a collective attention toward engaging students’ critical consciousness was noted (69).”
From Exploring public health education’s integration of critical race theories: A scoping review (2023) · cites this paper as [69]
The section “Striking Matches: Promising Policies and Practices to Promote Critical Action” describes school pedagogies and class assignments designed to engage students in critical action. It does not assess the four assignment-focused articles cited in the sentence or establish that they collectively attended to students’ critical consciousness. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe origin of critical consciousness frames how marginalized communities and individuals analyze oppressive and discriminatory systems, and a cornerstone of this theoretical construct is critical motivation and action to dismantle systems of oppression and seek social justice.
“Though the origin of critical consciousness frames how marginalizes communities and individuals analyze oppressive and discriminatory systems (69, 70), a cornerstone of this theoretical construct is critical motivation and action to dismantle systems of oppression and seek social justice.”
From Exploring public health education’s integration of critical race theories: A scoping review (2023) · cites this paper as [69]
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“Critical consciousness is a process through which individuals develop their analysis of structural oppressions and build agency to enact change to transform oppressive systems (Diemer et al., 2020; Freire, 1973).”
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“Researchers have called for more focus on critical action, the behavioral component of critical consciousness (Watts & Hipolito-Delgado, 2015; Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“Our findings reinforce the need for schooling models, curricula, and student leadership opportunities that center critical consciousness and equip emerging adults with the tools to challenge systemic inequity (e.g., Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“Our assessment of critical consciousness also represents only one aspect of the full construct, with recent reviews emphasizing the importance of all three dimensions, especially social action (Diemer et al., 2020b; Heberle et al., 2020; Jemal, 2017; Rapa et al., 2018).”
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“Social media engagement is a potential outcome of critical consciousness (i.e., adolescents using social media to express their views on social injustices; Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“Due to the lack of research investigating critical action in White youth, and the recent calls for centering critical action in critical consciousness research (Diemer et al., 2021), our study focuses on how the racial context contributes to White youths' critical action.”
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“The second dimension, critical action , refers to the participation in an action, individual or collective, aimed at contesting or challenging the perceived inequalities and oppressions (Campbell & MacPhail, 2002; Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“A number of scholars have defined critical action as the overt resistance in individual and collective action taken to change sociopolitical inequities in society that create and per-petuate social injustice (Diemer et al., 2021; Watts et al., 2011; Zimmerman et al., 1999).”
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“Though the origin of critical consciousness frames how marginalizes communities and individuals analyze oppressive and discriminatory systems (69, 70), a cornerstone of this theoretical construct is critical motivation and action to dismantle systems of oppression and seek social justice.”
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“While critical consciousness is generally seen as adaptive in adolescence [10,35,42,43], questions remain regarding the role of critical consciousness in the association between racism and mental health for Black adolescents.”
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“…relatively new, suggests that there are both developmental benefits associated with youth activism, such as positive identity, intergroup skills, and solidarity across different groups, and potential harms of burnout or disillusionment (Diemer et al. 2021; Maker Castro, Wray-Lake, and Cohen 2022).”
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“This is because critical action is characterized as a form of civic engagement focused on challenging and dismantling oppressive social systems and is thus not characterized as traditional action (Westheimer and Kahne, 2004; Shaw et al., 2014; Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“Critical consciousness, a framework that is closely related to sociopolitical development theory (Diemer et al., 2021), was used as a sensitizing concept in analysis.”
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“Our participants did not, however, express a general commitment to social action focused on systemic change, which some scholars consider a central component of critical consciousness (Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“The creation of opportunities for youth from different backgrounds with diverse beliefs and perspectives is imperative not only for the future of our democracy, but also for the healthy development of young people (Diemer et al., 2021).”
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“…2020; Maker Castro et al., 2022), a reality that has led scholars to call for new understandings of what counts as action and for stakeholders to better centralize critical action in schools and youth programming (Carey et al., 2021; Diemer et al., 2021; Quiles et al., 2023; Seider et al., 2023).”
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“…on information needs focused on production and market risks (Komarek et al., 2020), to the neglect of the adequacy of measures required by end-users (Nwafor et al., 2020) specific information for different stages of the value chain (Diemer et al., 2021) and emerging needs (Chen & Lu, 2020).”
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Suzuki, S., Quiles, T. B., & Castro, E. M. (2022) · Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.2660 · Cited by 7
Assante, G., Popa, N., & Grădinariu, T. (2022) · Behavioral Science · doi:10.3390/bs12100376 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Pavarini, G., Murta, S. G., Mendes, J. A. D. A., Siston, F. R., de Souza, R. R. A., da Cunha, R. D. O., Ferreira, J. A., de Santos, V. H. D. L., Seabra, B. T. R., & Singh, I. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14078 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Relevant skills for collective action were identified based on the literature on civic engagement (Ballard & Syme, 2016) and critical consciousness (Diemer et al., 2021; Freire, 1970, “Sometimes a person may be in an abusive relationship but because they are so immersed in it, they fail to see it…”
Development and validation of the white critical consciousness index
Frisby, M. B., & Diemer, M. A. (2024) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2024.2383856 · Cited by 6
“The antiracist allyship literature also suggests solidarity is expressed through action (Boutte & Jackson, 2014; Diemer et al., 2021).”
Self-citationNicolai, K. D., Koenka, A. C., & Braxton, D. (2023) · Middle School Journal · doi:10.1080/00940771.2023.2232264 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Two key components of critical consciousness are critical reflection and action (Campbell & MacPhail, 2002; Diemer et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSantilli, S., Zucchini, D., Valbusa, I., Ginevra, M., Tracey, T., & Nota, L. (2026) · Journal des adolescens · doi:10.1002/jad.70113 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Critical consciousness entails evaluating power dynamics, dominant ideologies, and oppressive structures, empowering individuals to recognize privilege, address systemic inequalities, and engage in transformative action (Cadenas et al. 2018; Watts et al. 2011; Diemer et al. 2021).”
Towards a theory of sociopolitical development and socialization during middle childhood
Kirby, A. L. (2025) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.70024 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Pinedo, A., & Kruger, N. (2025) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.70058 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Sociopolitical development and critical consciousness research highlight that youth's reasoning about inequality and their sociopolitical efficacy are particularly salient precursors to critical action (Diemer et al., 2021; Hope & Jagers, 2014).”
Self-citationYouth activism: developing sociopolitical synergy across interest, knowledge, and involvement
Wray-Lake, L., Hope, E. C., Saavedra, J. A., Arce, M., & Conner, J. O. (2025) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2025.2481253 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Botha, G. C., & Crafford, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1435472 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“They emphasized both understanding and practical skills, highlighting the need to specifically move beyond mere reflection to action (84).”
Mabrouk, F. A., Connaught, G. K., Allen, C. A., & Israel, K. (2024) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2024.2373428 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“CC scholars seek to present an alternative approach to the skewing effects of traditional, euro-centric research science, i.e. those that claim to bear “collective, sustained, mobilized action to transform inequitable social structures (Diemer et al., 2021, p. 13).”
Quiles, T. B., Mathews, C. J., Ross, R. A., Rosario, M. L., & Leath, S. C. (2024) · Youth · doi:10.3390/youth4020032 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Critical action, which describes individual and collective acts of resistance, is one key component that allow marginalized youth to challenge systemic inequities that impact their communities [26].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationUsing Quantitative Critical Race Methodology to Explore Teachers’ Perceived Beliefs
Stewart, N. D., Beard, K. S., & Kim, M. (2023) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/08959048231174879 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Teachers’ critical pedagogical practices have led to students’ heightened awareness of how society oppressed and oppresses marginalized people (Diemer et al., 2021; Giroux, 2010; Lac, 2017).”
BackgroundChildhood and Adulthood Predictors of Critical Consciousness
Devonshire, J., & Narvaez, D. (2023) · Social justice research · doi:10.1007/s11211-023-00409-7 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Su, X.-B., & Wong, V. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-022-00874-0 · Cited by 5
“A mindset of critical consciousness manifested in the forms of critical reflection, critical commitment, and critical actions enables people to counteract the hindering effects of various sources of barriers and enjoy the freedom from bias, discrimination and marginalization (Diemer et al., 2021).”
Investigating pathways to environmental civic engagement for diverse communities
Hamaneh, A. B., Dayer, A., Drape, T. A., & Chaves, W. A. (2026) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-025-02356-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Critical consciousness emphasizes how marginalized groups develop awareness of structural inequities and take collective action to challenge them (Diemer et al. 2021).”
Theatre of the Oppressed as a Strategy Against LGBTQ-Based Aggression: A Scoping Review
Puvaneyshwaran, D., Lee, J., & Tan, R. (2025) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-025-10391-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Black Youth Rising: Understanding Motivations and Challenges in Young Adult Activism
Briggs, A. S. (2024) · Youth · doi:10.3390/youth4020043 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“It acknowledges the limited attention given to understanding their experiences and seeks to add a nuanced exploration of their activism [55,56].”
BackgroundWu, X., Ali, A., Zhang, T., Chen, J., & Hu, W.-X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1003467 · Cited by 4
RetractedTrott, C., Shepherd-Reyes, E. M., Lam, S., Lusnak, A., & Dreher, C. (2026) · npj Climate Action · doi:10.1038/s44168-026-00359-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Proposing a Framework to Center Justice in Ambitious Science Teaching
Luehmann, A., Merliss, G., Campbell, T., Scipio, D., Zhang, Y., Cooke, H., Wilson, E., Pugh, P., & Gama‐Krummel, A. (2026) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.70065 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Critical Consciousness in Sport Scale (CCSS): development and initial psychometrics properties
Peixoto, E. M., Camiré, M., & Romano, A. R. (2025) · Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-025-00346-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This highlights the importance of creating opportunities for critical actions as a means to foster political efficacy and critical reflection, contributing to the holistic development of critical consciousness (Diemer et al., 2021).”
Teacher Beliefs About Race, Empathy, and Black Boys: S-TEAAM 2.0
Warren, C. A., Wellborn, C., & Herd, T. (2025) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584251326910 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…Warren, 2013, 2014; Warren, Presberry, & Louis, 2022; Whitford & Emerson, 2019), this research fails to clarify the potential pitfalls of attempting to empathize without attending to the status of one’s own critical (racial) consciousness (Bañales et al., 2021; Diemer et al., 2021; Freire, 1974).”
Golojuch, L. A., Morgan, A. A., & Mittal, M. (2025) · Journal of Marital & Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/jmft.70006 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Burson, E., Godfrey, E. B., Ibrahim, D. A., Yoshikawa, H., Calzo, J., & Poteat, V. (2024) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2024.2412426 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This omission is especially troubling given that critical action is under-theorized and under-examined in the CC literature (Diemer et al., 2021).”
Maynard, A., & Symonds, J. (2024) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12745 · Cited by 3
Becker, M. L. (2024) · Bilingual Research Journal · doi:10.1080/15235882.2024.2368251 · Cited by 3
“…as comprising three core components: critical reflection, or awareness of systems of oppression and inequality; political efficacy, or perceived capacity to address inequality; and critical action, or involvement in activities to bring about change (Diemer et al., 2021; Heberle et al., 2020).”
Roles of Racial Ecologies on Black Adolescents’ Coping with Racism
Golden, C., Jones, S. C. T., Cage, J., & Lozada, F. T. (2024) · Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/00110000241243073 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“These studies have found critical action to be associated with positive health outcomes (Diemer et al., 2016) though some have reported increased stress and anxiety among Black students (Diemer et al., 2021).”
BackgroundLincoln, B., Patel, K. N., Binder, M., Lund, T., & Liang, B. (2024) · Adolescents · doi:10.3390/adolescents4010007 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Critical consciousness is understood as an important subtype of civic engagement wherein the latter focuses on community wellbeing at large and the former is focused specifically on the liberation of all people [52].”
BackgroundInclusive learning in higher education: anthropology and critical consciousness lens
Supriyadi, S., Haenilah, E., Sinaga, R., Maulina, D., Yolida, B., & Irwandani, I. (2024) · Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) · doi:10.11591/edulearn.v18i1.20965 · Cited by 3
“The critical consciousness pedagogy involves recognizing and analyzing social inequality in society and taking action to address it [6].”
BackgroundLee, K., Phan, N. T., Flores, N. M., Mesngon, J. G., Palaganas, A., Quichocho, C., & Agustin, N. A. S. (2022) · Environment and Planning F · doi:10.1177/26349825221142286 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Thomas, J., & Newell, E. E. (2022) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2022.2115337 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“CA encompasses behaviors undertaken individually or collectively to challenge and change facets of society that are perceived as unjust (Diemer et al., 2021).”
BackgroundCritical Consciousness in Engineering for Sustainable Communities
Xu, G.-L., Benavides, A., Calabrese-Barton, A., Tan, E., Bliesener, S., Francesco, G. D., & Barton, S. C. (2022) · Connected Science Learning · doi:10.1080/24758779.2022.12318669 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Hamber, B., & McArdle, E. (2026) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.70073 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Adolescent Daily Critical Action During the 2024 US Election
Cerda‐Smith, J., Najafian, S., Neupert, S., & Mulvey, K. (2026) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.70070 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Castro, E. M., Kwei, M., Bigelow, J. C., Welch, A., Zuckerberg, N., Landrum, V., & Chaku, N. (2026) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.70058 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kheirkhah, H. (2026) · Journal of ethnic and cultural studies · doi:10.29333/ejecs/2654 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Through these first-person narratives, I center the experiences of six AITEs (Leina, Arjun, Derek, Mira, Z, and Min Ji), who actively navigate and resist systemic marginalization within U.S. teacher education (Diemer et al., 2021; Jemal, 2017; Watts et al., 2011).”
Structural problems without structural solutions? Youth leaders' perceptions of their community
Hjelm, L. L., Brown, A. A., Fisher, B. W., Story, A., & Bennett, N. (2026) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.70008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Critical actions include both individual and collective behaviors, like protesting and communicating with public of fi cials, that aim to dis-mantle oppression (Diemer et al., 2021).”
Investigating Preservice Teachers' Competence to Notice Ethnic Microaggressions in the Classroom
Civitillo, S., Glock, S., Naudszus, L. A., Venhoff, L., Lieck, D., & Jugert, P. (2025) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.70056 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“However, while the literature on the development of youths' critical reflection has rapidly increased in the last decade (Diemer et al. 2021), research among teachers remains limited.”
Reyes, W. D. L., Sánchez, B., Draper, C., & Barraza, R. (2025) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/07435584251344276 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Behrens, S. (2025) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x251346801 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…as a state of empowerment or self-realization (Beaumont, 2010; Budziszewska & Głód, 2021; Kallio & Häkli, 2016), others have defined the term as more of a process of assuming the capacity to make a difference (Diemer et al., 2021; Hitlin & Johnson, 2015; Hope et al., 2023; Watts & Halkovic, 2022).”
Exploring correlates of critical motivation among Asian immigrant-origin adolescents in the U.S.
Kang, G. S., & Negrete, A. (2025) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2025.101762 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
McConocha, E., & Grzanka, P. (2025) · Psychology of women quarterly · doi:10.1177/03616843241310433 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…activism highlights the interconnection between critical re fl ection, motivation, and action as a process that is integral to generating political and civic engagement that can effectively challenge systems of power and oppression that maintain inequities and unjust policies (Diemer et al., 2021).”
Heberle, A. E., & Noyola, N. (2024) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2024.2333800 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“However, more research in this area is needed, as there is a significant dearth of studies on the critical action dimension of critical consciousness specifically in relation to adolescents’ mental health (Diemer et al., 2021; Maker Castro et al., 2022).”
InfluentialGriffin, C., Bañales, J., Hope, E. C., & Legette, K. B. (2024) · Psychology in the schools (Print) · doi:10.1002/pits.23170 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationManywheres: In Pursuit of Social Justice in Developmental Science
Velez, G., & Power, S. (2024) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000536510 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…both children and adolescents – because of the unique opportunities they present for reimagining the world, as well as the considerable attention to their engagement in civics, peace, and con fl ict (e.g., Berents & McEvoy-Levy, 2015; Diemer et al., 2021; Killen et al., 2021; Taylor, 2020).”
Background
- Authors
- Diemer, M. A., Pinedo, A., Bañales, J., Mathews, C. J., Frisby, M. B., Harris, E. M., & McAlister, S.
- Affiliations
- Institute of Education Sciences (US)
- Corresponding author
- Diemer, Matthew A
- Venue
- Child Development Perspectives
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2021-02-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 12-17
- ISSN
- 1750-8592 (ISSN-L)
- 1750-8606
- OpenAlex
- W3109180658
- Cited by
- 199
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 26.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute of Education Sciences (R305A170639)
- William T. Grant Foundation (186645)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Critical and Liberation Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Youth Development and Social Support
- Keywords
- critical consciousness, critical action, marginalized youth, collective action, empowerment, critical reflection, developmental outcomes, youth development, social justice
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