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Cited by 65Migration and Labor DynamicsDiaspora, migration, transnational identityIntergenerational Family Dynamics and Caregiving

Navigating transnational childcare relationships: migrant parents and their children's caregivers in the origin country

Open access
POEZE, MIRANDA, DANKYI, ERNESTINA K., MAZZUCATO, VALENTINA·2017·Global Networks
DOI 10.1111/glob.12135
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Abstract

In this article, we investigate the daily work entailed in maintaining informal transnational childcare relationships between migrant parents and the children's kin or non-kin caregivers in the country of origin. By applying the concept of ‘kin work’, we seek to understand how work is performed within transnational care relationships. Using a simultaneous matched sample methodology that gives equal weight to data on both sides of the transnational relationship, a team of researchers collected ethnographic data from Ghanaian migrant parents in the Netherlands and from their children's caregivers in Ghana. This approach allowed us to investigate the day-to-day care work from two perspectives – namely the visible and the invisible actions of the people involved in creating the kinship relationships of care work. Discrepancies in perceptions were uncovered because we compared data obtained on both sides of the relationship. These findings contribute to our understanding of the ways in which long-distance practices facilitate the maintenance of kin relationships and how the inability to perform these can lead to tensions.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This article uses simultaneous matched sample ethnography to examine how Ghanaian migrant parents in the Netherlands and their children’s caregivers in Ghana maintain informal transnational childcare through kin work. It finds that trust is sustained through careful, often selective management of finances and communication, with grandmother caregivers enabling more open relationships than other kin or non-kin caregivers.

Key findings

  • Transnational childcare relationships require ongoing “kin work”: migrant parents and caregivers carefully manage finances and communication to build and maintain trust, often through “not doing,” “not communicating,” or selective communication.
  • Grandmothers are the preferred and most trusted caregivers; with grandmothers, finances and communication are more open, and visits are less necessary to build trust. Non-grandmother caregivers often avoid negotiating finances to escape stigma, and may hide shortages by borrowing money, postponing payments, moving children from private to public schools, or letting children engage in income-generating activities.
  • The simultaneous matched sample revealed discrepancies in perceptions: for example, Joyce distrusted caregiver Cecilia over remittances and school fees while Cecilia faced a dire economic situation, and Kofi was unaware of caregiver Kwesi’s financial difficulties while praising his support.
  • Communication can invert power relations: children with mobile phones may report directly to parents, making caregivers wary; third-party monitoring can appease worries but can also exacerbate mistrust and disrupt care arrangements, as in Kate’s case.

Methods

  • The study used a Simultaneous Matched Sample (SMS) methodology: two researchers simultaneously studied 11 families, pairing Ghanaian migrant parents in the Netherlands with their children’s extended kin or non-kin caregivers in Ghana.
  • Fieldwork ran from mid-2011 to mid-2013; data came from multiple qualitative interviews, observations during interviews and social visits, and regular phone calls. Interviews in the Netherlands were mainly in English, while those in Ghana were mainly in Twi and later translated into English.
  • The matched sample was supplemented by a non-matched sample of 27 Ghanaian migrant parents in the Netherlands and 19 caregivers in Ghana. Across the total 57 families, 11 had a father who migrated, 32 a mother, and 14 both; 36 families had a grandmother caregiver, 17 other kin, and 5 non-kin.

Limitations

  • Stated: the SMS methodology raises ethical issues of confidentiality because researchers encounter information other family members may not know; the authors responded by guaranteeing confidentiality and not divulging information between the two sides.
  • Stated: the complete matched sample included 15 pairs, but four families were excluded from this analysis because the caregiver was the children’s mother (3) or the child’s sibling (1).
  • Evident from the text: the analyzed matched sample is small (11 families) and qualitative, drawn from Ghanaian migrants in Amsterdam and caregivers in the Ashanti and Greater Accra regions, with almost all respondents Akan (8) or Ga (2), so findings are not statistically generalizable.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/glob.12135

Cites

49 of 49 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 73 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Migrant parents and caregivers alike carefully manage their finances and communications to maintain mutually trusting relationships across borders.

    “Our study reveals how migrant parents and caregivers alike carefully manage their finances and their communications to maintain mutually trusting relationships across borders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    Despite social parenthood norms, mobilizing caregivers and creating transnational childcare arrangements is not an easy process.

    “Despite social parenthood norms, we find that mobilizing caregivers and creating transnational childcare arrangements is not an easy process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Other kin and non-kin were selected when grandmothers were deceased or incapable of providing care due to their own migration, sickness, or old age.

    “This was the case when grandmothers were deceased or incapable of providing care due to their own migration, sickness, or old age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Grandmothers, or in a few cases a migrant's previous foster mother, are the preferred caregivers, as in national fostering arrangements and transnational families elsewhere.

    “Consequently, grandmothers, or in a few cases a migrant's previous foster mother, are the preferred caregivers, as in national fostering arrangements (Verhoef 2005) and transnational families elsewhere (Dreby 2010;Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Verhoef 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Dreby 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila 1997 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingnone given

    The choice of a specific caregiver is further guided by circumstantial characteristics, such as proximity to quality schools, the caregiver's level of education, and the number of children in the person's household.

    “The choice of a specific caregiver is further guided by circumstantial characteristics, such as the proximity to quality schools, the caregiver's level of education, and the number of children in the person's household.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 60
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 22

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The child's age and gender were a consideration for parents; affectionate relationships between grandmothers and grandchildren were viewed positively for younger children but considered a hindrance to the proper disciplining needed for adolescent children, especially boys.

    “Moreover, the child's age and gender were a consideration for parents; the affectionate relationships between grandmothers and grandchildren were viewed positively for younger children but were considered a hindrance to the proper disciplining needed for adolescent children, especially boys.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Usually, adolescent boys would stay with male relatives to receive proper male supervision; also, if they had previously stayed with their birth mothers, the migrant father usually made the decision for the change.

    “Usually, adolescent boys would stay with male relatives to receive proper male supervision; also, if they had previously stayed with their birth mothers, the migrant father usually made the decision for the change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both migrant parents and caregivers emphasize the obligation to care for somebody else's children, but both actors face a myriad of tacit and non-tacit considerations.

    “Whereas both migrant parents and caregivers emphasize the obligation to care for somebody else's children, we find that both actors face a myriad of tacit and non-tacit considerations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Single migrant fathers tend to send children to paternal relatives once they are out of their infant years, but in a few cases a migrant couple would send their children to the paternal grandmother if she were more readily available or if the father took the decision.

    “Single migrant fathers tend to send children to paternal relatives once they are out of their infant years, but in a few cases a migrant couple would send their children to the paternal grandmother if she were more readily available or if the father took the decision.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    From the perspective of caregivers, most expressed their willingness to 'help out' and seemed to take on their role without prior consideration.

    “From the perspective of caregivers, most expressed their willingness to 'help out' and seemed to take on their role without prior consideration, as Kesewaa (Kumasi, July 2012) illustrated:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In a transnational context, parents send remittances for their children's high quality education and to cover day-to-day costs of child raising, while caregivers perform daily care tasks that require proximity.

    “In a transnational context, parents send remittances for their children's high quality education and to cover the day-to-day costs of child raising, while caregivers perform the daily care tasks that require proximity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The issue of trust is emphasized by migrants who choose their child's grandmother.

    “The issue of trust is emphasized by migrants who choose their child's grandmother.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The preference for the maternal grandmother is especially true of single mothers and couples, and corresponds with the Akan ethnic group's matrilineal lineage structure, in which children belong to the mother's family.

    “This is © 2016 The Author(s) especially true of single mothers and couples, and corresponds with the fact that the Akan ethnic group, to which the majority of our respondents belong, has a matrilineal lineage structure, which means that the children belong to the mother's family (Assimeng 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Assimeng 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Grandmothers are often at a stage of their lives in which they have few productive and reproductive responsibilities that compete with the attention and resources they can give to a migrant's children.

    “Furthermore, grandmothers are often at a stage of their lives in which they have few productive and reproductive responsibilities that compete with the attention and resources they can give to a migrant's children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Both mothers and fathers trust grandmothers the most with the care of their children, for they consider them to have a 'good heart' and to be affectionate towards their grandchildren, and therefore most likely to treat the child as 'their own'.

    “Both mothers and fathers trust grandmothers the most with the care of their children, for they consider them to have a 'good heart' and to be affectionate towards their grandchildren, and therefore to be the most likely caregivers to treat the child as 'their own'.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Whereas both paternal and maternal grandmothers are trusted, most families opt for the maternal grandmother.

    “Whereas both paternal and maternal grandmothers are trusted, most families opt for the maternal grandmother.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Migrant parents appreciate the help provided by the caregiver to act collectively for family survival, and it takes away worries that caregivers can be trusted with the finances.

    “Migrant parents appreciate the help provided by the caregiver to act collectively for family survival and it takes away worries that caregivers can be trusted with the finances.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Financial remittances have material and emotional implications.

    “Financial remittances have material and emotional implications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In the case of Fosua and Opoku, demands for money and a logbook did not affect Opoku's trust in Fosua but served to resolve the problem, as Opoku subsequently sent more remittances.

    “The demands for money and the logbook did not affect Opoku's trust in her but served to resolve the problem, as subsequently Opoku sent more remittances.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Cecilia, who was unemployed, received insufficient money from Joyce to pay for the children's expenses, and this pushed her into a dire economic situation, which she only disclosed to Joyce on a few occasions.

    “Cecilia, who was unemployed, received insufficient money from Joyce to pay for the children's expenses and this pushed her into a dire economic situation, which she only disclosed to Joyce on a few occasions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Caregivers who are not grandmothers often fail to tell the parents of their own economic difficulties when remittances fall short; they do not make financial demands even when in a financial bind.

    “For the same reason, caregivers who are not grandmothers often fail to tell the parents of their own economic difficulties when remittances fall short; in other words, they do not make financial demands even when in a financial bind.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Those who are not grandmothers are particularly conscious of the issue of trust and do not want to look as if they are doing it 'just for the money'.

    “Those who are not grandmothers are particularly conscious of the issue of trust and do not want to look as if they are doing it 'just for the money'.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Parents are financially responsible for their children, yet the exact amount is not discussed.

    “Parents are financially responsible for their children, yet we find that the exact amount is not discussed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Instead of making financial demands, caregivers resort to alternative strategies, such as borrowing money, finding ways to postpone payments, moving children from expensive private schools to inexpensive public ones, or letting them engage in income generating activities after school hours.

    “Instead, they resort to alternative strategies, such as borrowing money, finding ways to postpone payments, moving children from expensive private schools to inexpensive public ones, or letting them engage in income generating activities after school hours.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Remittances signify the parents' continued presence and enable caregivers to meet the daily needs of the migrants' children, including school fees, food, clothing, and medical costs.

    “They signify the parents' continued presence and they enable the caregivers use to meet the daily needs of the migrants' children, including school fees, food, clothing, and medical costs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    For caregivers, challenges mainly entail insufficient remittances and children complaining to their parents over the care they receive, whereas parents can grow worried over the material and immaterial care provided by the caregiver.

    “For caregivers this mainly entails insufficient remittances and children complaining to their parents over the care they receive, whereas parents can grow worried over the material and immaterial care provided by the caregiver.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    All these expectations are unspoken and part of generally accepted practices rather than explicitly marked agreements.

    “Importantly though, all these expectations are unspoken and part of generally accepted practices rather than explicitly marked agreements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Other parents were forced to make a 'care compromise', meaning that in light of migration opportunities and no alternative caregivers, parents place their children with a person they do not trust or whom they consider a poor caregiver, usually with the expectation that reunification in the Netherlands can soon be accomplished.

    “Other parents were forced to make a 'care compromise' (Winters 2014), meaning that in the light of migration opportunities and no alternative caregivers, parents place their children with a person they do not trust or whom they consider a poor caregiver, usually with the expectation that reunification in the Netherlands can soon be accomplished.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Winters 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingreasoning

    Largely shaped by success stories of migrants in the West, it is expected that after a short adjustment period, remittances will be sent on a regular basis.

    “Largely shaped by success stories of migrants in the West, it is expected that after a short adjustment period, remittances will be sent on a regular basis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Efua only told her mother that she had migrated to the Netherlands by phone once she was already there and had left her two children with her; Efua worried that her mother would refuse because of her advanced age and because her son suffered from a chronic illness that required extra care.

    “Efua only told her mother that she had migrated to the Netherlands by phone, once she was already there and had left her two children with her.Efua worried that her mother would refuse because of her advanced age and because her son suffered from a chronic illness that required extra care.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Although caregivers may benefit financially from the arrangement, the idea that they take on the role for financial gain is frowned on in the community, and caregivers go to great lengths to avoid such accusations.

    “Although they may benefit financially from the arrangement, the idea that they take on the role for financial gain is frowned on in the community and caregivers go to great lengths to avoid such accusations (Dankyi 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dankyi 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    One female migrant was so desperate to find a caregiver that she pretended the arrangement would only last for a short time, although she knew that was unlikely, and hesitant grandmothers could find themselves 'forced' into the caregiving role.

    “One female migrant was so desperate to find a caregiver that she pretended that the arrangement would only last for a short time, although she knew that was unlikely and hesitant grandmothers could find themselves 'forced' into the caregiving role.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Parents worry that the caregiver might take it out on their children if they complain, or withdraw from the caregiving role.

    “but they nonetheless worry that the caregiver might take it out on their children if they complain, or worse, withdraw from the caregiving role.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Such care is often assumed by both parties but becomes problematic when expectations are not met.

    “Such care is often assumed by both parties but becomes problematic when expectations are not met.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Parents emphasize the advantages of open communication with grandmothers; it makes it easier to instruct the grandmothers on how to treat their children and they can have open discussions with them.

    “Instead, parents emphasize the advantages of open communication; it makes it easier to instruct the grandmothers on how to treat their children and, at least they can have open discussions with them.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Parents do not worry about the children's grandmothers abandoning or maltreating them, or trying to conceal information about the care they give.

    “Parents do not worry about the children's grandmothers abandoning or maltreating them, or trying to conceal information about the care they give.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Such complaints from grandmothers, unlike complaints from children, do not erupt into open conflicts or mistrust, because parents recognize how difficult it is to control adolescents, especially for grandmothers.

    “Such complaints, unlike complaints from children, do not erupt into open conflicts or mistrust, for parents recognize how difficult it is to control adolescents, especially for grandmothers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    The concept of 'kin work' allows focus on the work involved in 'doing' family across national boundaries.

    “The concept of 'kin work' allows us to focus on the work involved in 'doing' family across national boundaries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites di Leonardo 1987 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Geographical distance may create and exacerbate power dynamics, conflicts and inequalities, and shift power balances.

    “Geographical distance may create and exacerbate power dynamics, conflicts and inequalities, and shift power balances (Dreby and Adkins 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dreby and Adkins 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a transnational context, family life is enacted without continued face-to-face contact, so explicit and deliberate actions are needed to overcome geographical distance, and kin work has to be reorganized.

    “In a transnational context, where family life is enacted without continued face-to-face contact, there is a need for explicit and deliberate actions to overcome geographical distance.Consequently, kin work has to be reorganized.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bryceson and Vuorela 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Transnational care relationships, though often embedded in tacit family practices, need to be 'worked at'.

    “While transnational care relationships are often embedded in tacit family practices, these relationships need to be 'worked at'.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites di Leonardo 1987 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    New information and communication technologies, particularly mobile phones and the internet, have increased possibilities for migrants and non-migrants to engage in each other's lives, facilitating active re-creation of family ties and emotional bonds across borders.

    “New information and communication technologies (ICTs), particularly mobile phones (Vertovec 2004) and the internet (Madianou 2012;Wilding 2006), have increased the possibilities for migrants and non-migrants to engage in each other's lives, facilitating the active re-creation of family ties and emotional bonds across borders (Baldassar 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Vertovec 2004 source

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    • cites Madianou 2012 source

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    • cites Baldassar 2007 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Studying relationships between migrant parents and caregivers contributes to understanding of how transnationalism shapes family relations and organization.

    “Furthermore, studying such relationships contributes to our understanding of how transnationalism shapes family relations and organization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kinship care is key to family survival in the context of transnational migration.

    “The few studies on caregivers, mostly grandmothers (Moran-Taylor 2008;Yarris 2012) and other kin and non-kin (Dankyi 2014;Dreby 2010) highlight that kinship care is key to family survival in the context of transnational migration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Moran-Taylor 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Yarris 2012

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    • cites Dankyi 2014

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Despite emotional suffering from geographical separation, family members can live 'apart-together' through transnational family practices such as long-distance communication, return visits and sending money.

    “Despite the emotional suffering that results from geographical separation, family members can live 'apart-together' (Baldassar 2007;Mazzucato and Schans 2011) through transnational family practices such as long-distance communication, return visits and sending money.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baldassar 2007 source

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    • cites Mazzucato and Schans 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The literature on transnational families has shifted from viewing the family as a bounded geographical unit to viewing it as a social unit that can be maintained across distance and national boundaries.

    “The perspective of the literature on transnational families has shifted from one of seeing the family as a bounded geographical unit to that of envisaging it as a social unit that can be maintained across distance and national boundaries (Bryceson and Vuorela 2002;Zontini 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bryceson and Vuorela 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Zontini 2004 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Scholarly work has focused primarily on how relationships are sustained in nuclear family units, and the dynamics and practices involved in creating care arrangements in extended care networks and maintaining relationships between migrant parents and caregivers have received scant attention in transnational family literature.

    “The dynamics and practices involved in creating care arrangements in extended care networks and maintaining relationships between migrant parents and caregivers has been given scant attention in transnational family literature (Mazzucato and Schans 2011); or, if it is signalled as important, it is not the focus of analysis (Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila 1997;Schmalzbauer 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato and Schans 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila 1997 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schmalzbauer 2004 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies point to diverse ways in which family members maintain a feeling of co-presence through long-distance communication, such as telephone calls, text messages, letters, remittances, photos, and visits.

    “Such studies point to the diverse ways in which family members maintain a feeling of co-presence through long-distance communication, such as telephone calls, text messages, letters, remittances, photos, and visits (Baldassar 2007;Mason 2004;Parreñas 2005;Zontini 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Baldassar 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mason 2004 source

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    • cites Parreñas 2005 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Relationships between migrant parents and caregivers are important to the functioning of transnational families and to how their different members experience living apart.

    “Yet, such relationships are important to the functioning of transnational families and to how their different members experience living apart.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Kinship does not automatically result from 'being' kin, but is actively created through everyday family practices that require 'time, intention, and skill'.

    “The notion of kin work as a verb emphasizes that kinship does not automatically result from 'being' kin, but is actively created through everyday family practices that require 'time, intention, and skill' (di Leonardo 1987: 443).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites di Leonardo 1987 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Caregivers worry about insufficient remittances, protracted care arrangements, and difficulties of maintaining control over the children.

    “Caregivers, on the other hand, worry about insufficient remittances, protracted care arrangements, and the difficulties of maintaining control over the children (Dankyi 2014;Dreby 2010;Moran-Taylor 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dankyi 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Dreby 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Moran-Taylor 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Caregivers perform hands-on domestic and care tasks, provide financial and emotional support, and help children understand their parents' absence.

    “Caregivers perform handson domestic and care tasks, provide financial and emotional support, and help children understand their parents' absence (Dankyi 2014;Dreby 2010;Moran-Taylor 2008;Yarris 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dankyi 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Dreby 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Moran-Taylor 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bryceson and Vuorela's concept of 'relativizing' applies kin work to the transnational context and emphasizes that construction of family within a transnational space is more deliberate because it cannot rely on continuous face-to-face contact and taken-for-granted everyday interactions.

    “Bryceson and Vuorela (2002) introduced the concept of 'relativizing', which applies the notion of kin work to the transnational context.They emphasize that the construction of family within a transnational space is more deliberate, for it cannot rely on continuous face-to-face contact and taken-for-granted everyday interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bryceson and Vuorela 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The simultaneous matched sample methodology allowed the study to give equal attention to migrants and non-migrants and to examine day-to-day care work in 'real time' rather than relying on recall.

    “Because our study employed the simultaneous matched sample (SMS) methodology (Mazzucato 2009), which allowed us to give equal attention to migrants and non-migrants, we could examine day-to-day care work in 'real time' rather than having to rely on recall.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    About half of all Ghanaian international migrants come from the Ashanti and Greater Accra regions.

    “About half of all Ghanaian international migrants come from these regions (GSS 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites GSS 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Teamwork and continuous sharing and discussion of interview data and exchange of field visits gave each researcher insight into what happened on the other side and helped identify and analyse important relationship dynamics and discrepancies in information.

    “Moreover, our teamwork and the continuous sharing and discussion of interview data and the exchange of field visits gave each researcher insight into what happened on the other side and to follow up when necessary.This helped us identify and analyse important relationship dynamics and discrepancies in information (Poeze and Dankyi 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Poeze and Dankyi 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study could observe how a single event was experienced in both sites and how migrant parents and caregivers responded to each other's actions.

    “We could observe how a single event was experienced in both sites and how migrant parents and caregivers responded to each other's actions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Shared parental rights and responsibilities manifest in large extended kin households and in practices of 'kinship fostering', an informal system outside state involvement whereby children move to non-natal homes for shorter or longer periods and for reasons including collective cost sharing and reinforcing family ties.

    “This manifests itself in large extended kin households and in practices of 'kinship fostering', an informal system outside state involvement whereby children move to non-natal homes for shorter or longer periods and for a myriad of reasons, including collective cost sharing and reinforcing family ties (Goody 1982;Isiugo-Abanihe 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Goody 1982

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Isiugo-Abanihe 1994 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The transnational context poses challenges for researchers because it is difficult to study relationships when people are located in two or more localities, with risk that research lacks depth or breadth.

    “The transnational context poses challenges for researchers because it is difficult to study relationships when people are located in two or more localities.There is the risk that the research lacks either depth -when the researcher has to split her or his time between multiple contexts in a multi-sited research design -or breadth -when only one side of the transnational family network is studied (”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Caring for non-birth children is a kinship obligation.

    “Caring for non-birth children is a kinship obligation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Finch and Mason 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Prior studies focus primarily on effects of transnational family care on different members, but their focus is either on one side of the family or conducted in two sites sequentially, missing many small day-to-day interactions that constitute how people work at creating and maintaining networks of care.

    “However, their focus is either on one side of the family or the research has been conduct in two sites in a sequential manner, which misses many of the small day-to-day interactions that together constitute how people work at creating and maintaining networks of care (Mazzucato 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    While caregivers may take on the care role out of goodwill, performing it is merely adhering to societal duties and family responsibilities; it is 'the proper thing to do'.

    “Hence, while caregivers may take on the care role out of goodwill, performing it is merely adhering to societal duties and family responsibilities; it is 'the proper thing to do' (Finch and Mason 1991).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Finch and Mason 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The simultaneous matched sample methodology allows for simultaneous ethnographic research among different members of the same transnational family in their respective locations by two or more researchers.

    “This methodology allows for simultaneous ethnographic research among different members of the same transnational family in their respective locations by two or more researchers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In 2010, 16.4 per cent of Ghanaian children aged 0-18 lived in foster arrangements.

    “Child fostering is to date widely practised in Ghana: in 2010, 16.4 per cent of Ghanaian children, aged 0-18, lived in foster arrangements (GSS 2012: 28, table 8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites GSS 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample allowed the study to investigate dynamics within care relationships.

    “Our sample allowed us to investigate dynamics within care relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Ghana, filial relationships include biological and social ties, with childcare being the collective responsibility of kin and non-kin.

    “In Ghana, filial relationships include biological and social ties with childcare being the collective responsibility of kin and non-kin (Goody 1982).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goody 1982

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Monitoring by a third party can have a positive impact on the relationship when parents' worries are appeased, but it can also instigate or exacerbate mistrust, and has the potential to disrupt the care arrangement.

    “Monitoring by a third party can have a positive impact on the relationship when parents' worries are appeased, but it can also instigate or exacerbate mistrust, and has the potential to disrupt the care arrangement, as the following case illustrates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Whether such situations occur is influenced by the level of trust between the caregiver and the parent, and the quality of the relationship between the child and the caregiver.

    “Whether or not such situations occur is influenced by factors relating to the level of trust between the caregiver and the parent, and the quality of the relationship between the child and the caregiver.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Migrants send money and gifts to fulfil the obligation to share one's wealth with close kin and to acknowledge the time, energy, and finances spent on the care of the child.

    “Second, it fulfils the obligation to share one's wealth with close kin and to acknowledge the time, energy, and finances spent on the care of the child.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In nationally practised child fostering, the foster parents make the decisions about the child's upbringing, but in transnational families the migrant parents remain engaged in their parental role from afar.

    “In the latter case, the foster parents make the decisions about the child's upbringing, but in transnational families the migrant parents remain engaged in their parental role from afar.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato and Schans 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Migrants' children are a source of household labour and can be a potential source of old age care in the present and future, as children are morally obliged to provide elderly care for those who raised them.

    “Migrants' children are also a source of household labour and can be a potential source of old age care not only in the present, but also in the future as children are morally obliged to provide elderly care for those who raised them (Aboderin 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Aboderin 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Withholding information is a double-edged sword: it is part of an active strategy to sustain relationships across distances, but it can also create incomprehension and mistrust.

    “Withholding information, though, is a double-edged sword: whereas on both sides it is part of an active strategy to sustain relationships across distances, it can also create incomprehension and mistrust.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Situations such as Joyce's place parents in a bind: they feel inhibited about venting their worries, yet their children expect them to solve their problems with the caregiver.

    “Situations such as Joyce's place parents in a bind: they feel inhibited about venting their worries, yet at the same time their children expect them to solve their problems with the caregiver.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The level of trust in the caregiver determines whose story parents believe, and a parent's room for manoeuvre in case of needing to change a caregiver affects what they communicate to the caregiver and how.

    “The level of trust in the caregiver will determine whose story they believe and a parent's room for manoeuvre in case of needing to change a caregiver, will affect what they communicate to the caregiver and how.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    By managing finances, caregivers try to avoid accusations of mismanagement while at the same time fulfilling kinship obligations that prescribe they care for someone else's child as their own.

    “By managing finances, caregivers try to avoid accusations of mismanagement, while at the same time fulfilling kinship obligations that prescribe they care for someone else's child as their own.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Children who experience lengthy separations from their parents and who stay with a caregiver from a very young age are especially likely to grow emotionally attached to the latter and, accordingly, complain less to their parents about them.

    “Children who experience lengthy separations from their parents and who stay with a caregiver from a very young age, are especially likely to grow emotionally attached to the latter and, accordingly, complain less to their parents about them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Unequal access to information and resources between migrants and caregivers create new, or exacerbate old, asymmetries, power dynamics, and frustrations.

    “Unequal access to information and resources between migrants and caregivers create new, or exacerbate old, asymmetries, power dynamics, and frustrations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These care transactions are part of longer-term reciprocal relationships through which 'kinning' is done and lay the basis for future support from the child to the caregiver, both emotional and material.

    “Moreover, these care transactions are part of longer-term reciprocal relationships through which 'kinning' is done and lays the basis for future support from the child to the caregiver, both emotional and material (Shipton 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shipton 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Both the migrant parent in the Netherlands and the caregiver in Ghana will be in need of help when the first generation of migrant parents reaches retirement age.

    “In this respect, both the migrant parent in the Netherlands and the caregiver in Ghana will be in need of help (Mazzucato 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mazzucato 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Migrant parents and caregivers strategically manage finances and communication not only out of altruistic attachment to the migrant, caregiver, or child, but also in response to kinship obligations of care and to avoid the community's condemnation when failing to do so.

    “Migrant parents and caregivers strategically manage finances and communication not only out of altruistic attachment to the migrant, caregiver, or child, but also in response to kinship obligations of care and to avoid the community's condemnation when failing to do so.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pre-existing norms of social parenthood and practices of child fostering are not exclusive to the Ghanaian case, but can be found in other regions, especially West Africa and the Caribbean, making the study potentially relevant for other cases.

    “Pre-existing norms of social parenthood and practices of child fostering are not exclusive to the Ghanaian case, but can be found in other regions, especially West Africa (Whitehouse 2009) and the Caribbean (Soto 1989), making our study potentially relevant for other cases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Whitehouse 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Soto 1989 source

      Not checked in the free run.

76 of 76

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No prior study has investigated day-to-day care from the perspectives of those who migrate and those who stay behind simultaneously.

    “While there are studies that analyse the daily transnational family interactions that keep families functioning across geographical distances (Baldassar 2007;Bryceson and Vuorela 2002;Zontini 2004), to our knowledge, none have investigated day-to-day care from the perspectives of those who migrate and those who stay behind simultaneously.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    To date little is known about the considerations that go into selecting a caregiver and accepting the care role, and about the day-to-day strategies that migrant parents and caregivers develop to maintain trust and reciprocity at the basis of informal care arrangements.

    “Hence, to date we know little about the considerations that go into selecting a caregiver and accepting the care role ( but see Dreby 2010; Winters 2014), and the day-to-day strategies that migrant parents and caregivers develop to maintain trust and reciprocity that are at the basis of informal arrangements of care.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Few studies employ an approach that gives equal importance to each side of the transnational relationship.

    “To our knowledge, few studies employ an approach that gives equal importance to each side of the transnational relationship.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the absence of co-residency and limited face-to-face contact, long-distance communication is the primary means through which migrants and non-migrants exchange information and through which intimate relationships are maintained.

    “In the absence of co-residency and limited face-to-face contact, long-distance communication is the primary means through which migrants and non-migrants exchange information and through which intimate relationships are maintained.”
4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Poeze, 2013, Eén familie, twee landen, twee onderzoekers: ervaringen met een simultaneous matched sample-methodologie, Kwalon, 3, 41, 10.5553/KWALON/138515352013018003009 · DOI
  2. Poeze, 2014, Transnational families, migration and the circulation of care: understanding mobility and absence in family life, 149
  3. Singh, 2014, Transnational families, migration and the circulation of care: understanding mobility and absence in family life, 220
  4. Yarris, 2012, Money, love, and the shifting substance of kinship in Nicaraguan transnational families, Anthropology News, 54

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
POEZE, M., DANKYI, E. K., & MAZZUCATO, V.
Affiliations
  • Maastricht University (NL)
  • University of Ghana (GH)
Corresponding author
  • POEZE, MIRANDA
  • MAZZUCATO, VALENTINA
ORCID
Venue
Global Networks
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2016-06-27
Volume
17
Issue
1
Pages
111-129
ISSN
1470-2266 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1111/glob.12135
OpenAlex
W2464311233
Semantic Scholar
c327c56a44a04e702dbcc7fb5aa7c643e2c60821
Cited by
65
References
49
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4
FWCI
17.11
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Global Networks (publishedVersion)
  • Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
  • Universiteit Maastricht
  • Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (W01.65.316)
  • University of Ghana
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Migration and Labor Dynamics
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Diaspora, migration, transnational identity
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational Family Dynamics and Caregiving
Keywords
migrant parents, kinship, long-distance care, Ghanaian migrants, care work

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