The relationship between the perceived and actual effectiveness of persuasive messages: a meta-analysis with implications for formative campaign research

Dillard, James Price; Weber, Kirsten M; Vail, Renata G.

doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00360.x

Cited by 276Media Influence and HealthEvaluation and Performance AssessmentSocial and Intergroup Psychology

The relationship between the perceived and actual effectiveness of persuasive messages: a meta-analysis with implications for formative campaign research

Dillard, James Price, Weber, Kirsten M, Vail, Renata G.·2007·Journal of Communication

DOI 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00360.x

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Although measures of perceived message effectiveness are commonly employed in formative evaluation research, the validity of such measures has been assumed rather than demonstrated. A meta-analysis revealed a corrected-for-attenuation correlation of.41 between perceived effectiveness (PE) and attitude (k= 40). This association was apparently subject to the influence of moderator variables, although the pattern of influence was unstable across different types of analysis. Overall, the results empirically demonstrate the value of PE judgments in formative research and in circumstances in which actual effectiveness (AE) is difficult or impossible to measure. They also prompt a host of questions concerning (a) the causal relationship between PE and AE, (b) the possibility of bias in these judgments, and (c) the potential for developing methods to reduce or remove bias in effectiveness judgments. Future research is needed to corroborate these results as well as broaden the range of AE measures.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00360.x

Cites

69 of 69 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Research has suggested that messages with higher perceived effectiveness ratings may be more effective than those with lower ratings.
“These findings are noteworthy, as research has suggested that messages with higher perceived effectiveness ratings may be more effective than those with lower ratings.82–84”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [82]

Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.84.5.888 · Cited by 7,611 · see citing works
Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542 · see citing works
Communication and Persuasion
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4964-1 · Cited by 5,219 · see citing works
Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change
Marquart, F., & Naderer, B. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-09923-7_20 · Cited by 5,007 · see citing works
Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings.
Raudenbush, S. W., Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1991) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2289738 · Cited by 2,363 · see citing works
The Third-Person Effect in Communication
Davison, W. P. (1983) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/268763 · Cited by 1,967 · see citing works
Statistics notes: Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence
Altman, D. G., & Bland, J. M. (1995) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.311.7003.485 · Cited by 1,946 · see citing works
On the Nature of Reactance and its Role in Persuasive Health Communication
Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2005) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637750500111815 · Cited by 1,571 · see citing works
Self-citation
Interpreting the magnitudes of correlation coefficients.
Hemphill, J. F. (2003) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.1.78 · Cited by 1,237 · see citing works
Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies
Feldman, J. M., Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Jackson, G. B. (1984) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/258247 · Cited by 1,199 · see citing works
Regulatory Fit and Persuasion: Transfer From "Feeling Right."
Cesario, J., Grant, H., & Higgins, E. T. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.3.388 · Cited by 1,014 · see citing works
Effects of need for cognition on message evaluation, recall, and persuasion.
Cacioppo, J., Petty, R., & Morris, K. J. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.805 · Cited by 899 · see citing works
Attitude toward the AD as a Mediator of Consumer Brand Choice
Shimp, T. A. (1981) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.1981.10672756 · Cited by 832 · see citing works
Meta-Analysis: Cumulating Research Findings across Studies
Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Jackson, G. B. (1986) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.2307/1175263 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
The Persuasion Handbook: Developments in Theory and Practice
Dillard, J. P., & Pfau, M. W. (2002) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412976046 · Cited by 695 · see citing works
Self-citation
Visual Explanations
Tufte, E. R. (1997) · Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) · Cited by 618 · see citing works
The Influence of Presumed Influence
Gunther, A. C., & Storey, J. D. (2003) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02586.x · Cited by 545 · see citing works
The Role of Mood in Advertising Effectiveness
Batra, R., & Stayman, D. M. (1990) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/208550 · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Designing Health Messages: Approaches from Communication Theory and Public Health Practice
Maibach, E. W., & Parrott, R. L. (1995) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452233451 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Affect and Persuasion
Dillard, J. P., & Peck, E. Y. (2000) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365000027004003 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Self-citation
Processing of persuasive in-group messages.
Mackie, D. M., Worth, L. T., & Asuncion, A. G. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.5.812 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
The Multiple Affective Outcomes of AIDS PSAs
Dillard, J. P., Plotnick, C. A., GODBOLD, L. C., Freimuth, V. S., & Edgar, T. (1996) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365096023001002 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Self-citation
Perceived Persuasive Effects of Product Commercials and Public Service Announcements
GUNTHER, A. C., & Thorson, E. (1992) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365092019005002 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Affect and Persuasion Emotional Responses to Public Service Announcements
Dillard, J. P., & Peck, E. Y. (2000) · Communication Research · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Self-citation
Message Framing and the Interrelationships among Ad-Based Feelings, Affect, and Cognition
Homer, P. M., & Yoon, S.-G. (1992) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.1992.10673357 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Avoiding the Boomerang: Testing the Relative Effectiveness of Antidrug Public Service Announcements Before a National Campaign
Fishbein, M., Jamieson, K. H., Zimmer, E., von Haeften, I., & Nabi, R. L. (2002) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.92.2.238 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Cognitive Mediation of Positive Affect in Persuasion
Worth, L. T., & Mackie, D. M. (1987) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1987.5.1.76 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Presumed Influence on Peer Norms: How Mass Media Indirectly Affect Adolescent Smoking
Gunther, A. C., Bolt, D. M., Borzekowski, D. L. G., Liebhart, J. L., & Dillard, J. P. (2006) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00002.x · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cognitive Processing and the Functional Matching Effect in Persuasion: The Mediating Role of Subjective Perceptions of Message Quality
Lavine, H. G., & Snyder, M. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1996.0026 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Ego-involvement, discrepancy, source credibility, and attitude change.
Rhine, R. J., & Severance, L. J. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029832 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Public relations research annual
(1992) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/0363-8111(92)90013-o · Cited by 183 · see citing works
When motives clash: Issue involvement and response involvement as determinants of persuasion.
Leippe, M. R., & Elkin, R. A. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.2.269 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Threat, Authoritarianism, and Voting: An Investigation of Personality and Persuasion
Lavine, H. G., Burgess, D. J., Snyder, M., Transue, J. E., Sullivan, J. L., Haney, B., & Wagner, S. H. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299025003006 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis of U.S. Health Campaign Effects on Behavior: Emphasize Enforcement, Exposure, and New Information, and Beware the Secular Trend
Snyder, L. B., & Hamilton, M. A. (2002) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410603029-29 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
The vividness effect: Elusive or illusory?
Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., Wood, J. V., & Thompson, S. C. G. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(88)90041-8 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Meta-Analysis of Experimental Manipulations: Some Factors Affecting the Velten Mood Induction Procedure
Larsen, R. J., & Sinnett, L. M. (1991) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167291173013 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Negative Emotion and Message Processing
Baron, R. A., Logan, H. L., Lilly, J., Inman, M. L., & BRENNAN, M. D. (1994) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1994.1009 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Person-Effects and Heuristic-Systematic Processing
Neuwirth, K., Frederick, E., & Mayo, C. G. (2002) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650202029003005 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Salience of a Communicator's Physical Attractiveness and Persuasion: A Heuristic Versus Systematic Processing Interpretation
Pallak, S. R. (1983) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1983.2.2.158 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The effects of anger, sadness and happiness on persuasive message processing: a test of the negative state relief Model
Mitchell, M., Brown, K., Villagran, M. M., & Villagran, P. (2001) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637750128070 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Methodological Artifact or Persistent Bias?
David, P., Liu, K., & Myser, M. (2004) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650203261513 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The Effects of Recipient Posture on Persuasion
Petty, R., Wells, G. L., Heesacker, M., Brock, T., & Cacioppo, J. (1983) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167283092004 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Uses and Efiects of Public Service Advertising
O’Keefe, G. J., & Reid, K. (1990) · Public Relations Research Annual · doi:10.1207/s1532754xjprr0201-4_3 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Matching messages to the values underlying value-expressive and social-adjustive attitudes: reconciling an old theory with a contemporary measurement approach
Hullett, C. R., & Boster, F. J. (2001) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637750128057 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The effects of threats to attitudinal freedom as a function of message quality and initial receiver attitude
Smith, M. J. (1977) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637757709390131 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Influence of a Photograph on a Charitable Appeal: A Picture May Be Worth a Thousand Words When It Has to Speak for Itself
Thornton, B., Kirchner, G., & Jacobs, J. (1991) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00529.x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Using Functional Theory to Promote Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Testing
Hullett, C. R. (2004) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650204266103 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Encouraging Preventive Behavior for Distant and Proximal Health Threats: Effects of Vivid versus Abstract Information
Rook, K. S. (1986) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/41.4.526 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cognitive processing of one‐ and two‐sided persuasive messages
Hale, J. L., Mongeau, P. A., & Thomas, R. M. (1991) · Western Journal of Speech Communication · doi:10.1080/10570319109374394 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Physical Attractiveness, Message Evaluation, and Compliance: A Structural Examination
Debevec, K., Madden, T. J., & Kernan, J. B. (1986) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1986.58.2.503 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Able but not motivated? The relative effects of happy and sad mood on persuasive message processing
Mitchell, M. M. (2000) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637750009376505 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
A Dual Processing Approach to Stereotype Change
Johnston, L., & Coolen, P. (1995) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167295217001 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The Impact of News and Entertainment Media on Perceptions of Social Reality
Eveland, W. P. (2002) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412976046.n31 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Patient Perceptions of Pharmacy Students' Hypertension Compliance-Gaining Messages: Effects of Message Design Logic and Content Themes
Lambert, B., & Gillespie, J. (1994) · Health Communication · doi:10.1207/s15327027hc0604_6 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Charting the process underlying the change of value-expressive attitudes: The importance of value-relevance in predicting the matching effect
Hullett, C. R. (2002) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/714041711 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Subjective message constructs: A theory of persuasion
Morley, D. D. (1987) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637758709390225 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Learning from the ad or relying on related attitudes: The moderating role of involvement
Mazursky, D., & Schul, Y. (1992) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/0148-2963(92)90006-w · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Choose Your Poison: Effects of Lay Beliefs About Mental Processes on Attitude Change
Wilson, T. D., Houston, C. E., & Meyers, J. M. (1998) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1998.16.1.114 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Understanding social influence: Relations between lay and technical perspectives
O’Keefe, D. J. (1993) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510979309368397 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Using Research to Inform Campaign Development and Message Design: Examples from the “America Responds to AIDS” Campaign
Nowak, G. J., & Siska, M. (1995) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452233451.n9 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
IS BIASED PROCESSING OF STRONG ATTITUDES PERIPHERAL? AN EXTENSION OF THE DUAL PROCESS MODELS OF ATTITUDE CHANGE
Na, E.-Y. (1999) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1999.85.2.589 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The Role of Prior Message Context in Evaluative Judgments of High- and Low-Diversity Messages
Bradac, J. J., Davies, R. A. I., & Courtright, J. A. (1977) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/002383097702000401 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Public Relations Research Annual
(2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203812952 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Aboriginal Self-Determination in Australia: The Effects of Minority-Majority Frames and Target Universalism on Majority Collective Guilt and Compensation Attitudes
Reid, S. A. (2005) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/31.2.189 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The Impact of Drug Education and Prevention Programs
Gilham, S. A., Lucas, W. L., & Sivewright, D. (1997) · Evaluation Review · doi:10.1177/0193841x9702100504 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Relationships of Speaker-Message Perception to Perceptual Field-Independence
Brilhart, B. L. (1970) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1970.tb00873.x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
IS BIASED PROCESSING OF STRONG ATTITUDES PERIPHERAL? AN EXTENSION OF THE DUAL PROCESS MODELS OF ATTITUDE CHANGE
NA, E.-Y. (1999) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.85.6.589-605 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Possessions theory of persuasion: An examination of its basis and range
Dillard, J. P., & Witte, K. (1993) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510979309368394 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citation
Aboriginal Self-Determination in Australia.
Reid, S. A., Gunter, H. N., & Smith, J. R. (2005) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2005.tb00869.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies
Noar, S. M., Hall, M. G., Francis, D. B., Ribisl, K. M., Pepper, J. K., & Brewer, N. T. (2016) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2014-051978 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
Perceived effectiveness of cessation advertisements: the importance of audience reactions and practical implications for media campaign planning
Davis, K. C., Nonnemaker, J., Duke, J., & Farrelly, M. C. (2013) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.696535 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
The persuasive effects of political microtargeting in the age of generative artificial intelligence
Simchon, A., Edwards, M., & Lewandowsky, S. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae035 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Assessing the effectiveness of antismoking television advertisements: do audience ratings of perceived effectiveness predict changes in quitting intentions and smoking behaviours?
Brennan, E., Durkin, S. J., Wakefield, M. A., & Kashima, Y. (2014) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050949 · Cited by 93 · see citing works

Authors: Dillard, J. P., Weber, K. M., & Vail, R. G.
Affiliations: Pennsylvania State University (US)
Czech Environmental Partnership Foundation (CZ)
ORCID: Dillard, James Price
Weber, Kirsten M
Venue: Journal of Communication
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2007-12-12
Volume: 57
Issue: 4
Pages: 613-631
ISSN: 0021-9916 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00360.x
OpenAlex: W2145914839
Cited by: 276
References: 69
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 70.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm, 2820 d)
Locations: Journal of Communication (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Media Influence and Health
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Evaluation and Performance Assessment
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: perceived message effectiveness, persuasive messages, formative assessment, attitude measurement, measurement validity, judgment bias, health campaigns, moderators

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The relationship between the perceived and actual effectiveness of persuasive messages: a meta-analysis with implications for formative campaign research

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks