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Cited by 5,286Populism, Right-Wing MovementsPolitical Theory and DemocracyGerman legal, social, and political studies

The Populist Zeitgeist

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Mudde, Cas·2004·Government and Opposition
DOI 10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
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Abstract

Since the 1980s the rise of so-called ‘populist parties’ has given rise to thousands of books, articles, columns and editorials. This article aims to make a threefold contribution to the current debate on populism in liberal democracies. First, a clear and new definition of populism is presented. Second, the normal-pathology thesis is rejected; instead it is argued that today populist discourse has become mainstream in the politics of western democracies. Indeed, one can even speak of a populist Zeitgeist. Third, it is argued that the explanations of and reactions to the current populist Zeitgeist are seriously flawed and might actually strengthen rather than weaken it.

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  • Not all populists are demagogues or opportunists, and demagogues and opportunists are not all populists.

    “Not all populists are demagogues or opportunists, and demagogues and opportunists are not all populists (cf. Mudde, 2004: 542).”

    From Critical research on populism: Nine rules of engagement (2018) · cites this paper as Mudde, 2004: 542

  • Populism fuels affective or pernicious polarization.

    “As populism (as an ideology) 'considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups' (Mudde, 2004, p. 543), it fuels affective/pernicious polarization (Roberts, 2022).”

    From Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review (2024) · cites this paper as Mudde, 2004

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Research works printed but not linked: 41

  1. Hassenteufel, 'Structures de représentation et "appel au peuple". Le populisme en Autriche', Politix, 14: 2 (1991), pp. 95-101.
  2. See, inter alia, Hans-Georg Betz and Stefan Immerfall (eds), The New Politics of the Right. Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies, New York, St Martin's Press, 1998;
  3. Cf. Reinhard Heinisch, 'Success in Opposition -Failure in Government: Explaining the Performance of Right-Wing Populist Parties in Public Office', West European Politics, 26: 3 (2003), pp. 91-130;
  4. Michael Jungwirth (ed.), Haider, Le Pen & Co. Europas Rechtspopulisten, Graz, Styria, 2002;
  5. Decker, Parteien unter Druck, op. cit. 34 On the link between nationalism and populism, and the concept of 'national populism,' see Taguieff, 'Political Science Confronts Populism', op. cit., pp. 9-43;
  6. Angus Stewart, 'The Social Roots', in Ionescu and Gellner, Populism. Its Meanings and National Characteristics, op. cit., pp. 183-5.
  7. Indeed, Simon Clarke has argued that Marxism-Leninism is essentially populist, while Ernesto Laclau called socialism 'the highest form of populism'. See Simon Clarke, 'Was Lenin a Marxist? The Populist Roots of Marxism-Leninism', in Werner Bonefeld and Sergio Tischler (eds), What is to Be Done? Leninism, Anti-Leninist Marxism and the Question of Revolution Today, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2002, pp. 44-75;
  8. See Cas Mudde, 'Extremist Movements', in Paul Heywood et al. (eds), Develop- ments in West European Politics 2, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2002, pp. 135-48;
  9. also Amir Abedi, Anti-Political Establishment Parties, London, Routledge, 2004.
  10. See, inter alia, Alan Ware, 'The United States: Populism as Political Strategy', in Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds), Democracies and the Populist Challenge, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2002, pp. 101-19;
  11. John Gerring, Party Ideologies in America, 1828-1996, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998;
  12. See, for example, Miklós Lackó, 'Populism in Hungary: Yesterday and Today', in Joseph Held (ed.), Populism in Eastern Europe. Racism, Nationalism, and Society, Boulder, CO, East European Monographs, pp. 107-28.
  13. See Peter Mair, 'Populist Democracy vs. Party Democracy', in Mény and Surel, Democracies and the Populist Challenge, op. cit., pp. 81-98;
  14. Peter Mair, 'Partyless Demo- cracy and the "Paradox" of New Labour', New Left Review, 2 (2000), pp. 21-35. 42 De Standaard, 2 December 2002. 43
  15. De Morgen, 21 May 2002. Similarly, René Cuperus, senior research fellow at the scientific bureau of the Dutch Labour Party, argues that 'social democracy should dare to be more "populist" in a leftist way.' See Cuperus, 'The Populist Deficiency of European Social Democracy', op. cit., p. 108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x © Government and Opposition Ltd 2004 · DOI
  16. Cf. Pippa Norris, 'Legislative Recruitment', in LeDuc et al., Comparing Democra- cies, op. cit., pp. 184-215.
  17. See, inter alia, Joseph N. Cappella and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Spiral of Cyni- cism. The Press and the Public Good, New York, Oxford University Press, 1997;
  18. Holli A. Semetko, 'The Media', in LeDuc et al., Comparing Democracies, op. cit., pp. 254-79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
  19. On the relationship between the media and populism, see, most notably, Mazzoleni et al., The Media and Neo-Populism: A Contemporary Comparative Analysis, op. cit. On the particular role of the new media, see Barrie Axford and Richard Huggins, 'Anti- Politics or the Triumph of Postmodern Populism in Promotional Cultures', Telematics and Informatics, 15: 3 (1998), pp. 181-202.
  20. Complete symbiosis between pop- ulism and the media has been achieved in Italy. See Paul Statham, 'Berlusconi, the Media, and the New Right in Italy', Press/Politics, 1: 1 (1996), pp. 87-105.
  21. See, inter alia, Susan J. Pharr and Robert D. Putnam (eds), Disaffected Democra- cies. What's Troubling the Trilateral Democracies, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2000;
  22. Pippa Norris (ed.), Critical Citizens. Global Support for Democratic Governance, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999.
  23. Cf. Hajo Funke and Lars Rensmann, 'Wir sind so frei. Zum rechtspopulistischen Kurswechsel der FDP', Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, 7 (2002), pp. 822-8;
  24. Kees van Kersbergen, 'Is Nederland een democratie?', De Helling, 15: 3 (2002), pp. 23-5. © Government and Opposition Ltd 2004
  25. For example, John Clayton Thomas, 'Ideological Trends in Western Political Parties', in Peter H. Merkl (ed.), Western European Party Systems, New York, Free Press, 1980, pp. 348-66;
  26. Mostefa Rejai (ed.), Decline of Ideology?, Chicago, Aldine/Atherton, 1971.
  27. Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Nether- lands, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1968.
  28. See, inter alia, Herbert Kitschelt (in collaboration with Anthony McGann), The Radical Right in Western Europe. A Comparative Analysis, Ann Arbor, University of Michi- gan Press, 1995;
  29. Russell J. Dalton et al. (eds), Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994.
  30. For example, Mark Blyth, 'Globalization and the Limits of Democratic Choice. Social Democracy and the Rise of Political Cartelization', Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft, 3 (2003), pp. 60-82;
  31. Philippe C. Schmitter, 'The Future of Democracy: Could It Be a Matter of Scale?', Social Research, 66: 3 (1999), pp. 933-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x © Government and Opposition Ltd 2004 · DOI
  32. Shaun Bowler et al., 'Populist Parties and Support for Direct Democracy', paper presented at the Australasian Political Studies Association Conference, Hobart, Tasmania, 29 September-1 October 2003, p. 36. 71 Frank Decker in 'Konjunkturen des Populismus. "Blätter"-Gespräch mit Frank Decker', Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, 10 (2002), p. 1185.
  33. Cf. Yves Mény and Yves Surel, 'The Constitutive Ambiguity of Populism' in Mény and Surel, Democracies and the Populist Challenge, op. cit., pp. 1-21;
  34. Margaret Canovan, 'Taking Politics to the People: Populism as the Ideology of Democracy' in Mény and Surel, Democracies and the Populist Challenge, op. cit., pp. 25-44;
  35. Darin David Barney and David Laylock, 'Right-Populists and Plebiscitary Politics in Canada', Party Politics, 5: 3 (1999), pp. 317-39.
  36. See von Beyme, 'The Concept of Political Class', op. cit., pp. 68-87;
  37. Schedler, 'Anti-Political-Establishment Parties', op. cit., pp. 291-312.
  38. Cf. Tjitske Akkerman, 'Populism and Democracy', Acta Politica, 38: 2 (2003), pp. 147-59;
  39. Mény and Surel, 'The Constitutive Ambiguity of Populism', op. cit., pp. 1-21.
  40. Margaret Canovan, 'Trust the People! Populism and the Two Faces of Demo- cracy', Political Studies, 47: 1 (1999), pp. 2-16.
  41. For an insight into populism-in-practice, see Michael Braun, 'Populismus an der Macht. Das Phänomen Berlusconi', Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft, 3 (2003), pp. 110-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x

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Authors
Mudde, C.
Corresponding author
Mudde, Cas
ORCID
Mudde, Cas
Venue
Government and Opposition
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2004
Volume
39
Issue
4
Pages
541-563
ISSN
  • 0017-257X (ISSN-L)
  • 1477-7053
DOI
10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
OpenAlex
W2080056892
Cited by
5,286
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 443 · 2025: 634 · 2024: 550 · 2023: 611 · 2022: 556 · 2021: 598 · 2020: 535 · 2019: 477 · 2018: 320 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 69 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 36
FWCI
55.96
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 3739 d)
Locations
Government and Opposition (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • British Academy
  • Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Populism, Right-Wing Movements
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › German legal, social, and political studies
Keywords
populism, populist parties, definition of populism, populist discourse, liberal democracy, political culture, Western democracies

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