The DOI matches its Crossref record; 52 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Scaling Model for Estimating Time‐Series Party Positions from Texts
Open accessAbstract
Recent advances in computational content analysis have provided scholars promising new ways for estimating party positions. However, existing text‐based methods face challenges in producing valid and reliable time‐series data. This article proposes a scaling algorithm called WORDFISH to estimate policy positions based on word frequencies in texts. The technique allows researchers to locate parties in one or multiple elections. We demonstrate the algorithm by estimating the positions of German political parties from 1990 to 2005 using word frequencies in party manifestos. The extracted positions reflect changes in the party system more accurately than existing time‐series estimates. In addition, the method allows researchers to examine which words are important for placing parties on the left and on the right. We find that words with strong political connotations are the best discriminators between parties. Finally, a series of robustness checks demonstrate that the estimated positions are insensitive to distributional assumptions and document selection.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“As Slapin and Proksch (2008) show, the estimates in the left-hand plot separate the German parties and replicate expert assessments of German party movement over time.”
From Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts (2013) · cites this paper as Slapin and Proksch 2008
In the citing paper
“First Monroe and Maeda (2004), then later Slapin and Proksch (2008), introduce statistical models based on item response theory (IRT) to automatically estimate the spatial location of the parties.”
From Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts (2013) · cites this paper as Slapin and Proksch 2008
In the citing paper
“we replicate an example from Slapin and Proksch (2008) that shows that the model works well with German political platforms.”
From Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts (2013) · cites this paper as Slapin and Proksch 2008
In the citing paper
“Slapin and Proksch (2008) develop their method, wordfish, as a Poisson-IRT model.”
From Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts (2013) · cites this paper as Slapin and Proksch 2008
In the citing paper
“A second method is an unsupervised method for locating actors in space (Monroe and Maeda 2004;Slapin and Proksch 2008).”
From Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts (2013) · cites this paper as Slapin and Proksch 2008
Citations
Cites
Regression Analysis of Count Data
Cameron, A. C., & Trivedi, P. K. (2013) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139013567 · Cited by 6,640
Regression Analysis of Count Data: Author Index
Cameron, A., & Trivedi, P. (1998) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511814365 · Cited by 6,406
The EM Algorithm and Extensions
Kushary, D., McLachlan, G. J., & Krishnan, T. (1998) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1271189 · Cited by 5,419
Tsebelis, G. (2002) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400831456 · Cited by 3,531
Veto Players. How Political Institutions Work
Giné, V. L., & Tsebelis, G. (2003) · Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas · doi:10.2307/40184562 · Cited by 3,361
A comparison of event models for naive bayes text classification
McCallum, A., & Nigam, K. (1998) · Cited by 3,289
Naive (Bayes) at forty: The independence assumption in information retrieval
Lewis, D. D. (1998) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/bfb0026666 · Cited by 2,140
Partisan Politics in the Global Economy
Garrett, G. (1998) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511625633 · Cited by 1,864
Party Policy in Modern Democracies
Benoit, K., & Laver, M. (2006) · doi:10.4324/9780203028179 · Cited by 1,616
Mapping Policy Preferences: Estimates for Parties, Electors, and Governments 1945-1998
Budge, I., Klingemann, H., Volkens, A., Bara, J. L., & Tanenbaum, E. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,508
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- De Swaan Abram, 1973, Coalition Theories and Cabinet Formation
- Klingemann Hans‐Dieter, 1995, Citizens and the State, 183
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 684
Dür, A., & Mödlhamer, C. (2021) · International Interactions · doi:10.1080/03050629.2022.1991337 · Cited by 8
Mitrani, M., Adams, T., & Noy, I. (2022) · PS Political Science & Politics · doi:10.1017/s1049096522000464 · Cited by 8
Class Conflict or Consensus? Understanding Social Partner Positions on Social Policy Reforms
Bender, B. (2023) · Journal of Social Policy · doi:10.1017/s0047279422000873 · Cited by 8
Unsupervised Approach for Identifying Users’ Political Orientations
Meguebli, Y., Kacimi, M., Doan, B.-L., & Popineau, F. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06028-6_49 · Cited by 8
Álvarez‐Gálvez, J., Plaza, J. F., Muñiz, J. A., & Delmar, J. L. (2014) · Estudios sobre el Mensaje Periodístico · doi:10.5209/rev_esmp.2014.v20.n2.47040 · Cited by 8
Weber, I. G., Popescu, A.-M., & Marco Pennacchiotti, B. (2013) · ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining (WSDM) · doi:10.1145/2433396.2433498 · Cited by 8
The legislative consequences of internal conflict and inter-party divisions
Haber, M. (2015) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/2053168015589216 · Cited by 8
The Mobilization and Influence of Business Interests
Smith, M. A. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0023 · Cited by 8
Pedrazzani, A. (2017) · Journal of Legislative Studies · doi:10.1080/13572334.2017.1361206 · Cited by 8
Assessing the applicability of vote advice applications for estimating party positions
König, P. D., & Nyhuis, D. (2018) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068818790111 · Cited by 8
Findings from the hackathon on understanding euroscepticism through the lens of textual data
Nanni, F., Glavaš, G., Ponzetto, S. P., Tonelli, S., Conti, N., Aker, A., Aprosio, A. P., Bleier, A., Carlotti, B., Gessler, T., et al. (2018) · Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) · Cited by 8
Analysis of Text-Analysis Syllabi: Building a Text-Analysis Syllabus Using Scaling
Fréchet, N., Savoie, J., & Dufresne, Y. (2019) · PS Political Science & Politics · doi:10.1017/s1049096519001732 · Cited by 12
Die Politikpositionen der deutschen Landtagsparteien und ihr Einfluss auf die Koalitionsbildung
Pappi, F. U., & Seher, N. M. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-05008-5_6 · Cited by 8
Koalitionsmanagement der christlich-liberalen Koalition Merkel II
Saalfeld, T. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-05213-3_9 · Cited by 8
The politics of military assistance: Italian parties’ positions on the war in Ukraine
Vignoli, V., & Coticchia, F. (2024) · South European Society & Politics · doi:10.1080/13608746.2024.2408233 · Cited by 7
Choi, D., Peskoff, D., & Stewart, B. (2026) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2025.10086 · Cited by 9
Learning from climate change news: Is the world on the same page?
Eikelboom, S., Valle, M. E. D., & Nissim, M. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0297644 · Cited by 7
Rally around the EU flag: Irish party positions on the EU in the wake of Brexit
Costello, R. (2020) · Journal of Contemporary European Studies · doi:10.1080/14782804.2020.1825352 · Cited by 7
Izumi, M., & Medeiros, D. B. (2021) · Latin American Politics and Society · doi:10.1017/lap.2020.36 · Cited by 7
‘Parties in the Shadows’ –Do Small and Marginal Parties Cater to a Niche?
Bartels, J., & Remke, M. L. (2021) · German Politics · doi:10.1080/09644008.2021.1913725 · Cited by 7
Optimizing text representations to capture (dis)similarity between political parties
Ceron, T., Blokker, N., & Padó, S. (2022) · Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning · doi:10.18653/v1/2022.conll-1.22 · Cited by 7
The Role of Language in the Automatic Coding of Political Texts
Ruedin, D. (2013) · Swiss Political Science Review · doi:10.1111/spsr.12050 · Cited by 7
Quantitative Analysis of Textual Data
Benoit, K. R., & Nulty, P. (2016) · Cited by 7
Finke, D., & Fleig, A. (2013) · Journal of Theoretical Politics · doi:10.1177/0951629813493212 · Cited by 7
Estimating the Conflict Dimensionality in the German Länder from Vote Advice Applications, 2014–2017
Nyhuis, D., & König, P. D. (2018) · Statistics Politics and Policy · doi:10.1515/spp-2018-0007 · Cited by 7
Fink, S., Bartels, J., Hagendorf, W., & Klinger, N. (2019) · Utilities Policy · doi:10.1016/j.jup.2019.05.007 · Cited by 7
Time-dependent Poisson reduced rank models for political text data analysis
Jentsch, C., Lee, E. R., & Mammen, E. (2019) · Computational Statistics & Data Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.csda.2019.106813 · Cited by 7
Studying Ideational Change in Russian Politics with Topic Models and Word Embeddings
Indukaev, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_25 · Cited by 7
Schoots, J., Rohr, B., Prajda, K., & Padgett, J. F. (2020) · Poetics · doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2019.101386 · Cited by 7
König, T., & Mäder, L. (2009) · Politische Vierteljahresschrift · doi:10.1007/s11615-009-0127-4 · Cited by 7
There's (Basically) Only One Way to Do itPreprint
Lowe, W. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2318543 · Cited by 7
Chatsiou, K. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2010.10267 · Cited by 11
Castillo-Campos, M., Becerra‐Alonso, D., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2025) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393251331510 · Cited by 7
Multi-dimensional Analysis of Political Documents
Stuckenschmidt, H., & Zirn, C. (2012) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31178-9_2 · Cited by 6
Voting, Speechmaking, and the Dimensions of Conict in the US Senate
Kim, I. S. L., Londregan, J., & Ratkovic, M. (2015) · Cited by 6
Trastulli, F., & Mastroianni, L. (2023) · Modern Italy · doi:10.1017/mit.2023.45 · Cited by 6
One money, one voice? Evaluating ideological positions of euro area central banks
Feldkircher, M., Hofmarcher, P., & Siklos, P. L. (2024) · European Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2024.102582 · Cited by 6
Foisy, L.-O. M., Drouin, J., Pelletier, C., Rivest, J., Cadieux, H., & Dufresne, Y. (2024) · Journal of Information Technology & Politics · doi:10.1080/19331681.2024.2444587 · Cited by 6
Wu, P. Y., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Messing, S. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData) · doi:10.1109/bigdata62323.2024.10825235 · Cited by 13
Bender, S., Bianchi, M., Hohl, K., Jüschke, A., Schoofs, J., & Steitz, S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-02915-9_8 · Cited by 6
Hartung, U. (2019) · German Politics · doi:10.1080/09644008.2019.1667978 · Cited by 6
Nya ytterhögerpartier i Finland (2000–2022)
Fagerholm, A. (2022) · Politiikka · doi:10.37452/politiikka.117042 · Cited by 6
Measuring Policy Positions of Veto Players in Parliamentary Democracies
König, T., Luig, B., Proksch, S., & Slapin, J. B. (2010) · Studies in public choice · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5809-9_4 · Cited by 6
Self-citationAssessing policy stability in Iraq: a fuzzy approach to modeling preferences
Casey, P. C., Wierman, M. J., Gibilisco, M. B., Mordeson, J. N., & Clark, T. D. (2010) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-010-9751-1 · Cited by 6
Public Opinion Toward CSSTA: A Text Mining Approach
Wu, Y.-A., & Hsieh, S. (2014) · International Conference on Computational Linguistics · Cited by 6
Fagerholm, A. (2013) · Perspectives on European Politics and Society · doi:10.1080/15705854.2013.772748 · Cited by 6
Hierarchical, Decentralized, or Something Else? Opposition Networks in the German Bundestag
Metz, T., & Jäckle, S. (2016) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/lsq.12122 · Cited by 6
Zirn, C., Meusel, R., & Stuckenschmidt, H. (2015) · MADOC (University of Mannheim) · Cited by 6
Assessing the validity of the Manifesto Common Space Scores
Flentje, J.-E. K., König, T., & Marbach, M. (2017) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2017.03.004 · Cited by 6
Green, J. C. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0008 · Cited by 6
Beyond a Bag of Words: Using PULSAR to Extract Judgments on Specific Human Rights at Scale
Baekkwan, P., Michael, C., & Kevin, G. (2018) · Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1515/peps-2018-0030 · Cited by 3
Jankowski, M., Schneider, S. H., & Tepe, M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-25604-3_5 · Cited by 6
Programs and Parties: Rethinking Electoral Competition Through Analysis of Brazilian 'Grotões'
Salles, N. (2019) · Brazilian Political Science Review · doi:10.1590/1981-3821201900020003 · Cited by 6
The Comparative Advantage of State Interest Organization Research
Lowery, D., & Gray, V. H. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0025 · Cited by 5
Electronic Resources and the Study of Political Elites in Russia
Renz, B., & Sullivan, J. (2013) · Europe Asia Studies · doi:10.1080/09668136.2013.848646 · Cited by 6
How to measure interest group influence: Italy’s professional orders and liberalization policy
Pritoni, A. (2015) · Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica · doi:10.1017/ipo.2015.10 · Cited by 6
Hemker, J. (2017) · French Politics · doi:10.1057/s41253-017-0029-6 · Cited by 7
The Evolution of National Party Organizations
Herrnson, P. S. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0013 · Cited by 6
Foreword: Understanding Constitutional ReasoningPreprint
Dyèvre, A., & Jakab, A. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2227104 · Cited by 6
Left-Right Reversed: Parties and Ideology in Modern TurkeyPreprint
Aydogan, A., & Slapin, J. B. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2165409 · Cited by 6
Self-citationCoalition Agreements and Party Preferences: A Principal Components Analysis ApproachPreprint
Falcó-Gimeno, A., & Vallbé, J. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2241115 · Cited by 6
Cerón, A. (2012) · Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca (Universita Degli Studi Di Milano) · doi:10.13130/ceron-andrea_phd2012-02-13 · Cited by 6
Eidelman, V., Kornilova, A., & Argyle, D. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1806.05284 · Cited by 6
The Battle of Ideas on the Euro Crisis: Evidence from ECB Inter-Meeting SpeechesPreprint
Ferrara, F. M. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3323844 · Cited by 6
Richter, F. C., Koch, P., Franke, O., Kraus, J., Warode, L., Kuruc, F., Heine, S., & Schöps, K. (2023) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/dx87u · Cited by 6
The ideological orientation of academic social science research 1960–2024
MANZI, J. (2026) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 · Cited by 5
Bol, D., & Bono, P.-H. (2025) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/20531680251335653 · Cited by 5
Maatsch, A., & Kurpiel, A. (2021) · Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Studies · doi:10.1080/14683857.2021.1877911 · Cited by 5
A natural language measure of ideology in the Brazilian Senate
de Figueredo, F. C., Mueller, B., & Cajueiro, D. O. (2022) · Revista Brasileira de Ciência Política · doi:10.1590/0103-3352.2022.37.246618 · Cited by 5
Additive manifesto decomposition: A policy domain aware method for understanding party positioning
Ceron, T., Nikolaev, D., & Padó, S. (2023) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL (Findings of ACL) · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.findings-acl.499 · Cited by 5
Egger, C. M., Caselli, T., Tziafas, G., de Saint-Phalle, E., & de Vries, W. (2023) · Regulation & Governance · doi:10.1111/rego.12557 · Cited by 5
Onderčo, M., & Vignoli, V. (2024) · Contemporary Security Policy · doi:10.1080/13523260.2024.2376416 · Cited by 5
What Would You Say? Estimating Causal Effects of Social Context on Political Expression
Schulz, W. S. (2024) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1017/pan.2024.15 · Cited by 5
Position-taking in House debate and the issue of immigration
Kalaf‐Hughes, N. (2013) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2013.842490 · Cited by 5
Linhart, E., & Shikano, S. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-01328-8_19 · Cited by 5
Bäck, H. (2012) · Statsvetenskaplig tidskrift · Cited by 5
Understanding Cultural Conflicts using Metaphors and Sociolinguistic Measures of Influence
Shaikh, S., Strzalkowski, T., Taylor, S., Lien, J., Liu, T., Broadwell, G. A., Feldman, L. B., Yamrom, B., Cho, K. W., & Peshkova, Y. (2015) · Workshop on Metaphor in NLP · doi:10.3115/v1/w15-1408 · Cited by 5
Blätte, A. (2012) · Zeitschrift für Politikwissenschaft · doi:10.5771/1430-6387-2012-1-35 · Cited by 5
Methodological Issues in the Study of Political Parties
Noel, H. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0004 · Cited by 5
The President, Party Politics, and Constitutional Development
Milkis, S. M., & Rhodes, J. H. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0020 · Cited by 5
Tzelgov, E., & Olander, P. (2018) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/lsq.12215 · Cited by 5
Ideological Congruence and Social Media Text as Data
Aydogan, A., Tuna, T., & Yildirim, A. K. (2019) · Representation · doi:10.1080/00344893.2019.1592012 · Cited by 6
Koljonen, J., Isotalo, V., Ahonen, P., & Mattila, M. (2020) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068820974609 · Cited by 5
Large-Scale Ideal Point Estimation
Peress, M. (2021) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1017/pan.2021.5 · Cited by 5
Gambling policy positions of Finnish newspapers between 2004 and 2020: An automated content analysis
Selin, J., & Nyrhinen, R. (2022) · Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.1177/14550725221083438 · Cited by 5
Campaign communication and legislative leadership
Müller, S., & Fujimura, N. (2024) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2024.11 · Cited by 5
Munzert, S. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Politikwissenschaft · doi:10.5771/1430-6387-2014-1-2-205 · Cited by 5
Semantic Network Analysis of Contested Political Concepts
Nulty, P. (2017) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.14415 · Cited by 5
Spatial Voting Meets Spatial Policy Positions: An Experimental Appraisal
González, T. A., & Granic, G. D. (2019) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055419000492 · Cited by 5
Lupia, A., Soroka, S., & Beatty, A. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz6300 · Cited by 5
Die Bedeutung der Landwirtschaft in Wahlprogrammen von Agrarparteien
Linhart, E. (2010) · Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s12286-010-0078-6 · Cited by 5
Interest group influence on EU policy-making: A quantitative analysis across issues
Kluever, H. (2009) · Archive of European Integration (AEI) (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 5
Inducing Information Structures for Data-driven Text Analysis
Salway, A., Touileb, S., & Tvinnereim, E. M. (2014) · doi:10.3115/v1/w14-2510 · Cited by 5
Analyzing Positions and Topics in Political Discussions of the German Bundestag
Zirn, C. (2014) · Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Student Research Workshop (ACL SRW) · doi:10.3115/v1/p14-3004 · Cited by 5
The State of Research on Political Parties and Interest Groups
Maisel, L. S., & Berry, J. M. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0001 · Cited by 5
Shafer, B. E. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0014 · Cited by 5
The Evolution of Consensus in the U.S. Supreme CourtPreprint
Rice, D. R., & Zorn, C. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2470029 · Cited by 5
Ketchley, N., Andersen, M. S., & Sending, O. J. (2025) · Review of International Political Economy · doi:10.1080/09692290.2025.2564680 · Cited by 4
Amosh, H. A. A. (2026) · Corporate Governance An International Review · doi:10.1111/corg.70037 · Cited by 4
Activists, Influence, and Representation in American Elections
Stone, W. J. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199542628.003.0015 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Slapin, J. B., & Proksch, S.
- Affiliations
- Trinity College Dublin (IE)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Political Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2008-07
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 705-722
- ISSN
- 0092-5853 (ISSN-L)
- 1540-5907
- OpenAlex
- W1998151601
- Cited by
- 684
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 143.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Political Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › General Social Sciences › Computational and Text Analysis Methods
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining
- Keywords
- party positions, policy positions, word frequency, party manifestos, time series estimation, German political parties, party system change, political connotation, left-right positioning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
