The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 44 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 13 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Is Semantic Information Meaningful Data?
Open accessAbstract
There is no consensus yet on the definition of semantic information. This paper contributes to the current debate by criticising and revising the Standard Definition of semantic Information (SDI) as meaningful data, in favour of the Dretske-Grice approach: meaningful and well-formed data constitute semantic information only if they also qualify as contingently truthful. After a brief introduction, SDI is criticised for providing necessary but insufficient conditions for the definition of semantic information. SDI is incorrect because truth-values do not supervene on semantic information, and misinformation (that is, false semantic information) is not a type of semantic information, but pseudo-information, that is not semantic information at all. This is shown by arguing that none of the reasons for interpreting misinformation as a type of semantic information is convincing, whilst there are compelling reasons to treat it as pseudo-information. As a consequence, SDI is revised to include a necessary truth-condition. The last section summarises the main results of the paper and indicates some interesting areas of application of the revised definition.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Floridi argues that the Standard Definition of Information (SDI) as well-formed, meaningful data gives only necessary but insufficient conditions for semantic information, because truth-values do not supervene on information and misinformation is pseudo-information rather than a type of information. He revises SDI into RSDI by adding a fourth, necessary truth-condition, aligning with the Dretske–Grice approach.
Key findings
- SDI is formulated as: σ is DOS (declarative, objective, semantic) information iff (1) σ consists of n data (d), n ≥ 1; (2) the data are well-formed; (3) the well-formed data are meaningful. Floridi holds these are necessary but not sufficient.
- The paper rejects alethic neutrality (AN) — the claim that meaningful, well-formed data qualify as information regardless of truth-value — and with it the consequences that false information (FI) is a genuine type of information, that tautologies qualify as information (TA), and that "it is true that σ" is non-redundant (TI).
- Nine proposed reasons for treating false information as a type of semantic information (FI.1–FI.9) are each argued to be unconvincing; two positive arguments are given that misinformation is pseudo-information: (a) "false" in "false information" is attributive and negative, so the compound fails the splitting test (unlike "digital information"), and (b) if false information counted as information, semantic erosion by operators like "not" would be inexplicable.
- The revised definition (RSDI) adds a fourth condition: the meaningful, well-formed data are truthful. Five areas of application are listed, including critique of deflationary theories of truth, mathematical/analytic propositions, empty names, the standard definition of knowledge, and a quantitative theory of semantic information based on truth-values and degrees of discrepancy rather than probability distributions.
Methods
- Conceptual/philosophical analysis, not empirical: the paper works within situation logic (Israel and Perry; Devlin), using the symbol σ and the term "infon" for discrete items of information irrespective of semiotic code or physical implementation.
- The argument proceeds by (i) formalising SDI and its four endorsed neutralities (typological, taxonomic, ontological, genetic), (ii) rejecting the fifth, alethic neutrality, (iii) rebutting nine reasons for counting false information as information, and (iv) supplying two constructive arguments that it is pseudo-information.
- Illustrative examples are used throughout (e.g. a dinner-guests scenario, a "false constable," the EREP CD-ROM database, Poe's raven as a unary device, hieroglyphics before the Rosetta Stone).
Limitations
- Stated by the paper: the rejection of TA (tautologies as information) is not pursued because it is "crucially connected to the interpretation of mathematical and analytic truths" and is left to another paper; arguments against AN based on deflationary theories of truth and a criticism of TI are also deferred as beyond the paper's scope.
- Stated by the paper: the analysis is deliberately restricted to declarative, objective and semantic (DOS) information; non-declarative uses of "information" (stipulations, invitations, orders, instructions, game moves, music files, digital paintings) and the mathematical/pragmatic senses tied to uncertainty, probability and decision utility are explicitly excluded.
- Evident from the text: the argument is conceptual and illustrative rather than empirical, resting on linguistic intuitions (e.g. the attributive/predicative test, the "false constable" analogy) and on the plausibility of the semantic-erosion argument, with no data or formal proof offered for the central claim.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own interpretation · 3 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Sources not found · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of these consequences seems ultimately defensible”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SDI is incorrect because truth-values do not supervene on semantic information”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Objective semantic information is taken to have a declarative or factual value, i.e., it is supposed to be correctly qualifiable alethically.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“their rejection forces a revision of AN and hence of SDI.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“none of the reasons for interpreting misinformation as a type of semantic information is convincing”
- Also stated in: § It follows that · p. 10 · hedged
“none of the main reasons that could be adduced for interpreting false information as a type of information is convincing”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The reasons considered in the paper are the main reasons for interpreting misinformation as a type of semantic information.
- Also stated in: § It follows that · p. 10 · hedged
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there are compelling reasons to treat it as pseudo-information”
- Also stated in: § It follows that · p. 10 · boosted
“there are compelling reasons to treat false and tautological information as pseudo-information”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § It follows that · p. 10 · boosted
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a consequence, SDI is revised to include a necessary truth-condition.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · p. 2 · plain
“It follows that SDI needs to be revised by adding a necessary truth-condition.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The rejection of FI alone is sufficient to force a revision of AN and hence of SDI.
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · p. 2 · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The bipartite account has gained sufficient consensus to become an operational standard in fields that tend to deal with data and information as reified entities”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Davis and Olson (1985)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Silver and Silver (1989)
- Not matchedcites Checkland and Scholes (1990)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SDI is incorrect because truth-values do not supervene on semantic information, and misinformation (that is, false semantic information) is not a type of semantic information, but pseudo-information, that is not semantic information at all.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meaning is not (at least not only) in the mind of the user.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SDI is criticised for providing necessary but insufficient conditions for the definition of semantic information.”
- Also stated in: § 2.1. An Analysis of the Standard Definition of Information · p. 9 · plain
“insofar as SDI provides necessary conditions for σ to qualify as DOS information, it also endorses four types of neutrality: TN, TaxN, ON and GN.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 2.1. An Analysis of the Standard Definition of Information · p. 9 · plain
- Probably not a substantial claim. 26
- It may state two separate claims as one. 8
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“There is no consensus yet on the definition of semantic information.”
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · p. 1 · plain
“recent surveys have shown no consensus on a single, unified definition of semantic information.¹”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Floridi [2002], [2004a], [2005] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 5 (p. 137) says there is no consensus on a single, unified definition of information. It mentions a proposed revision to the definition of semantic information, but does not specifically say there is no consensus on that narrower definition. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · p. 1 · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“ON) no information without data representation.”
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to SDI, alethic values are not embedded in, but supervene on semantic information:”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“meaningful and well-formed data constitute semantic information only if they also qualify as contingently truthful”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Objective semantic information is taken to have a declarative or factual value, i.e., it is supposed to be correctly qualifiable alethically.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“TaxN) a datum is a relational entity.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“GN) δ can have a semantics independently of any informee.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The question is whether it is rigorous enough to be applied in the context of an informationtheoretical epistemology. We shall see that this is not the case”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“FI may be coupled to some true, metainformation M that the source of FI is not fully reliable. What now counts as information is the true M, not the false FI.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Over the last three decades, most analyses have supported a definition of DOS information in terms of data + meaning.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Davis and Olson (1985)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Silver and Silver (1989)
- Not matchedcites Checkland and Scholes (1990)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The standard definition of DOS information (SDI) provides necessary but insufficient conditions for the qualification of data as information.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is not the case, and hence it would be a mistake or an act of misinformation to assert, that p constitutes information about the number of natural satellites orbiting around the earth and is also a falsehood.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“misinformation (false information) has turned out to be not a type of information but rather pseudo-information.”
- Also stated in: § 6. The standard definition of information revised · p. 16 · plain
“False information is not an inferior kind of information; it just is not information.”
- Also stated in: § 6. The standard definition of information revised · p. 16 · plain
“[...] false information and mis-information are not kinds of information——any more than decoy ducks and rubber ducks are kinds of ducks.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dretske (1981), 45
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Grice (1989), 371
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 6. The standard definition of information revised · p. 16 · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is not an oxymoron, but a way of specifying that the contents in question do not conform to the situation they purport to map.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it also endorses four types of neutrality: TN, TaxN, ON and GN.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The confusion about the nature of false information seems to be generated by a misleading analogy.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the attributive use can be either positive or negative.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“S.4 is one of the earliest and most popular formulations of SDI”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bateson (1973)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If false information were a genuine type of information it should pass the splitting test. It does not, so it is not.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“to exchange (receive, sell, buy, etc.) false DOS information about x, e.g. the number of moons orbiting around the earth, is to exchange (receive, sell, buy, etc.) no DOS information at all about x, only meaningful and well-formed data, that is semantic content.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we ordinarily speak of false information when what we mean is misinformation, i.e. no information at all.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“if they are not truthful, they can only constitute misinformation”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this merely shows that FI is a compound in which only the true component B qualifies as information.”
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“More recently, the bipartite account has begun to influence the philosophy of computing and information as well”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chalmers [1996]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Floridi [1999]
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Franklin [1995]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, there seem to be no good reason to treat false information as a type of information.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Ordinary uses of technical words may be too generic and idiosyncratic, if not incorrect, to provide conceptual guidelines.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it follows that SDI needs to be modified, to include a fourth condition about the positive alethic nature of the data in question”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“if the mathematical theorem is not correct (if p is false), it must be concluded that Q is misinformed (i.e. not informed) that p (Q does not have any information about the theorem).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“SDI.3 only requires the δ to be provided with a semantics already.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a false constable (attributive use) is clearly not a specific type of constable, but not a constable at all (negative use)”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“DTT may be satisfactory as theories of truth-ascriptions while being inadequate as theories of truthfulness”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Objective semantic information is taken to have a declarative or factual value, i.e., it is supposed to be correctly qualifiable alethically.
“where objective semantic information is taken to have a declarative or factual value, i.e., it is suppose to be correctly qualifiable alethically.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The reasons considered in the paper are the main reasons for interpreting misinformation as a type of semantic information.
“none of the main reasons that could be adduced for interpreting false information as a type of information is convincing”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The rejection of FI alone is sufficient to force a revision of AN and hence of SDI.
“For the sake of simplicity, in the rest of this article only the rejection of FI will be pursued”
The paper relies on this without support.
Sources of information are usually supposed to be truth-oriented or truth-tracking by default.
“sources of information are usually supposed to be truth-oriented or truth-tracking by default”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cloth of semantic information can be, and indeed is, often undone by equally semantic means.
“We know that the cloth of semantic information can be, and indeed is, often undone by equally semantic means.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Ordinary uses of technical words may be too generic and idiosyncratic, if not incorrect, to provide conceptual guidelines.
“ordinary uses of technical words may be too generic and idiosyncratic, if not incorrect, to provide conceptual guidelines.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The most articulate defense of VTNN has been offered by Floridi (2005, 2007), who gives two main arguments in support of the thesis that false ''nonnatural information'' is not really information: the argument from splitting and the argument from semantic loss .”
From INFORMATION WITHOUT TRUTH (2010) · cites this paper as Floridi 2005
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The most articulate defense of VTNN has been offered by Floridi (2005, 2007), who gives two main arguments in support of the thesis that false ''nonnatural information'' is not really information: the argument from splitting and the argument from semantic loss .”
From INFORMATION WITHOUT TRUTH (2010) · cites this paper as Floridi 2005
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 2. The Standard Definition of Information · p. 3
“Chalmers [1996]”
§ References · p. 19
“Chalmers, D. J. 1997, The Conscious Mind: in Search of a Fundamental Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press).”
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“…jointly sufficient conditions of their also being considered part of a branch of philosophy known as philosophy of information, and they are questions that are commonly addressed both in introductory texts (e.g., Floridi 2003) and in more advanced treatises (e.g., Floridi 2005) in that field, too.”
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Knowledge without a knower? Domain analysis in the age of machinic interpretation
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“Definitions of semantic information have ranged over the past decades from logical-foundational [20], [21], [22] to practical or task-oriented [23], [24], [25].”
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The Utilization of Social Media by Far-Right Political Parties
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The value of information in multi-scale feedback systems
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Four typologies for understanding local information
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Mathematics, nature and cryptography: Insights from philosophy of information
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Information and the Tortured Imagination
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Reyes, A. A. M. (2015) · Library trends · doi:10.1353/lib.2015.0004 · Cited by 2
“Consider also the positions of Floridi (2005) related to false information, which enhances the vicissitude of “information as internal structure”: • False information could have been genuine information had the relevant situation been different (counterfactual).”
BackgroundBueno, O. V. (2010) · Metaphilosophy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9973.2010.01641.x · Cited by 2
“A false theory, such as 1 Floridi disagrees, given that, on his view, false semantic information is pseudoinformation: it is not semantic information at all (Floridi 2005).”
BackgroundThe normative structure of information and its communication
Spence, E. H. (2010) · Journal of Information Communication and Ethics in Society · doi:10.1108/14779961011040569 · Cited by 2
A Semantic Approach to the Notion of Representation and Its Application to Information Systems
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“We would not use the term ‘misinformation’ or ‘wrong information’ as information has to be contingently true [11] [14].”
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Finger, M., & Reis, P. M. (2013) · Information · doi:10.3390/info4010060 · Cited by 2
The Notion of "Meaning System" and its use for "Semantic Search"
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KOMUNIKACIJOS TEORIJOS IR KOMUNIKACIJOS FILOSOFIJOS ASIMETRIJA
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Mindfulness biofeedback interface (MBI) design: Challenges and opportunities
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Chapter 3 The Concept of Information
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Comunicação, opinião pública e os impactos da revolução digital na era da pós-verdade e fake news
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Data and Information Transmission in the Context of Sonfication
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“Information can be seen as queries + data [25], consistent with the GDI’s scheme: information = data + meaning [24].”
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Developing an Integrative Semiotic Framework
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“In this article, the information receiver interprets a piece of information as M, and that information means M to the receiver, if the information causes the receiver to incorporate M into the receiver’s subsequent activities (based on Floridi, 2005; Bates, 2006; Meijer, 2013; Krzanowski, 2020).”
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About the Concept of Information
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“Biological meaning, as reworked here through the concept of process-information, is not bound or restricted by Baletheic^ concerns (Floridi 2005).”
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Las injusticias informativas como injusticias epistémicas
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The Fear of the Lord is the Beginning of Librarianship
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O QUE OS ESTUDOS SOBRE DESINFORMAÇÃO NA CIÊNCIA DA INFORMAÇÃO BRASILEIRA TÊM A NOS DIZER?
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Information Management in Schools in the Digital Age
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Feedback Loops: A Fundamental Ingredient of Information Processing
Baird, P. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-15931-7_3 · Cited by 1
A discussion on Internet Governance
Baloch, F. K., & Cusack, B. O. (2012) · International Conference on Computational Aspects of Social Networks (CASoN) · doi:10.1109/cason.2012.6412369 · Cited by 1
Information Needs, Motivations, and Use
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From Deep Blue to Watson: The Nature and Role of Semantic Systems in Civil Informatics
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Speaking Truth to/as Victims – A Jurisprudential Analysis of Data Breach Notification Laws
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The Role of Knowledge Management in IT Projects
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Plurality of Traditions and Metatheories in Information Science
Asmiyanto, T., & Wibowo, M. P. (2020) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · Cited by 1
Misinformation in EU elections 2019: A post Analysis
Tsakalidis, A. (2020) · Cited by 1
Information and Diagrammatic Reasoning: An Inferentialist Reading
Mendonça, B. R. (2020) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-020-09547-2 · Cited by 1
Floridi, L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198833635.003.0005 · Cited by 2
Self-citationChronic kidney disease: Patient information needs, preferences and priorities
Ormandy, P. (2008) · University of Salford Institutional Repository (University of Salford) · Cited by 1
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Semantic Information Encoding in One Dimensional Time Domain SignalsPreprint
Majumdar, K., & Jayachandran, S. (2016) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1611.01698 · Cited by 1
“We have shown here semantic information in the form of the shape of [ ]s n can be encoded in 13 distinct 3-point configurations, where these 3 points constitute the smallest neighborhood of n .”
BackgroundValue creation and barriers in the commercial use of open government data
Pereira, F. G. D. M. M. R. (2017) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · doi:10.34626/afsh-tk05 · Cited by 1
Interventions for the spreading of misinformation on social network sites
Chen, X. (2018) · DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) · doi:10.32657/10356/75238 · Cited by 1
“Floridi (2005) referred to misinformation as false content; misinformation would become disinformation when the source is aware of its false nature.”
BackgroundScarantino, A., & Piccinini, G. (2011) · doi:10.1002/9781444396836.ch5 · Cited by 1
Traditional theory of semantic information without scandal of deduction
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Informaatio tehokkuudesta osana itsesäätelyä yliopistojen laitoksilla
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Business Intelligence Meets Moral Intelligence
Blachfellner, S. F., Capurro, R., Britz, J., et al. (2009) · The International Review of Information Ethics
Implications of Internet Governance Issues for the end Users
Cusack, B. O., & Baloch, F. K. (2013) · UKAIS
Knowing the unknowns : financial policymaking in uncertainty
Gandrud, C. (2012) · London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science)
Image, Information and Changing Work Practices: The case of the BBC’s Digital Media Initiative
Mariátegui, J. C. (2013) · London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) · doi:10.13140/2.1.2037.8881
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Theorising the internet and its governance
Baloch, F. K. (2014) · Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology)
Semiotyczne aspekty rachunkowości
Masztalerz, M. (2013) · Studia Oeconomica Posnaniensia · doi:10.18559/vgbbhy69
Revisión del problema de Wiener o del estatus ontológico de la información
Reyes, A. A. M., & Antonio, A. (2015) · Vitae (Universidad de Antioquia)
Tredinnick, L. (2015) · London Met Repository (London Metropolitan University)
Reasoning in classification of paths in ER schemata by using a description logic
Xu, K., & Feng, J. (2014) · International Conference on Information Science, Electronics and Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1109/infoseee.2014.6948078
Mantri, R., & Feng, J. (2010) · iBusiness · doi:10.4236/ib.2010.24041
“Various definitions of information are given, some define information as objective while others do subjective, for example: Intuitively [6], “information is often used to refer to non-mental, user-independent, declarative, semantic contents which are embedded in physical implementations like databases and encycloped…”
BackgroundInfluentialDust in space and documentation
Bawden, D. (2008) · Journal of Documentation · doi:10.1108/jd.2008.27864aaa.001
Information Pluralism and Some Informative Modes of Ignorance
Patokorpi, E. (2011) · Information · doi:10.3390/info2010041
“For instance, if all information is in signs, there cannot be information out there without something (signs) that carries it [25].”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, S., Feng, J., & Cang, P. (2008)
Constructing a data schema from an information flow model
Feng, J., & Wang, S. (2008)
Cognitive Surveillance: Why does it never appear among the AVSS Conferences topics?Preprint
Diamant, E. (2014) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1406.6045
“Differences in opinion about data-information dichotomy are not new (please see, for example, the arguments in Floridi’s paper “Is Semantic Information Meaningful Data?” [14]).”
BackgroundAtkins, C. A. (2014) · OakTrust (Texas A&M University Libraries)
Leaps and bounds : towards an integrative theory of cultural evolution
Rissanen, S. (2014)
Spohrer, K. (2015) · Progress in IS · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25163-9_5
The Complex Nature of Information Behavior
(2016) · Studies in information · doi:10.1108/s2055-53772016002
Research by Roles and Contexts
(2016) · Studies in information · doi:10.1108/s2055-53772016010
Metatheories, Theories, and Paradigms
(2016) · Studies in information · doi:10.1108/s2055-53772016008
Information theft within different organizational types
Kim, J. H. (2015) · doi:10.7282/t3hd7xhf
“…p.303) or more specifically, “data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to the recipient (Davis and Olson, 1985, p.200),” while data is meant as “raw material that is processed and refined to generate information (Silver and Silver, 1989, p.6, as cited by Floridi, 2005, p.353).””
BackgroundHow to Account for Information
Floridi, L. (2010) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-61692-014-2.ch001
Self-citationThe History and Focus of Information Behavior Research
(2016) · Studies in information · doi:10.1108/s2055-53772016003
Metadata
- Authors
- FLORIDI, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- FLORIDI, LUCIANO
- ORCID
- FLORIDI, LUCIANO
- Venue
- Philosophy and Phenomenological Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-03
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 351-370
- ISSN
- 0031-8205 (ISSN-L)
- 1933-1592
- OpenAlex
- W2059974307
- Semantic Scholar
- 2af4a76b5eac94619fac8f2a44d008de8f94d58a
- Cited by
- 375
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 97.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Philosophy and Phenomenological Research (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
- University of Hertfordshire Research Archive (University of Hertfordshire) (submittedVersion)
- PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Management of Technology and Innovation › Scientific Research and Philosophical Inquiry
- Keywords
- semantic information, misinformation, truth conditions, definition of information
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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