Language profiles and literacy outcomes of children with resolving, emerging, or persisting language impairments
Open accessAbstract
Background: Children with language impairment ( LI ) show heterogeneity in development. We tracked children from pre‐school to middle childhood to characterize three developmental trajectories: resolving, persisting and emerging LI . Methods: We analyzed data from children identified as having preschool LI , or being at family risk of dyslexia, together with typically developing controls at three time points: t1 (age 3;09), t3 (5;08) and t5 (8;01). Language measures are reported at t1, t3 and t5, and literacy abilities at t3 and t5. A research diagnosis of LI (irrespective of recruitment group) was validated at t1 by a composite language score derived from measures of receptive and expressive grammar and vocabulary; a score falling 1 SD below the mean of the typical language group on comparable measures at t3 and t5 was used to determine whether a child had LI at later time points and then to classify LI s as resolving, persisting or emerging. Results: Persisting preschool LI s were more severe and pervasive than resolving LI s. Language and literacy outcomes were relatively poor for those with persisting LI , and relatively good for those with resolving LI . A significant proportion of children with average language abilities in preschool had LI s that emerged in middle childhood – a high proportion of these children were at family risk of dyslexia. There were more boys in the persisting and resolving LI groups. Children with early LI s which resolved by the start of formal literacy instruction tended to have good literacy outcomes; children with late‐emerging difficulties that persisted developed reading difficulties. Conclusions: Children with late‐emerging LI are relatively common and are hard to detect in the preschool years. Our findings show that children whose LI s persist to the point of formal literacy instruction frequently experience reading difficulties.
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Potential risk factors for DLD include a family history of speech and language impairments, low parental education and/or socioeconomic status, male gender, and pre- or peri-natal factors such as being born preterm or with low birth weight.
“Growing evidence suggests that potential risk factors include a family history of speech and language impairments, a low level of parental education and/or socioeconomic status (SES), male gender, and pre- or peri-natal factors such as being born preterm or with low birth weight [19,22,51].”
From Developmental Language Disorder: Early Predictors, Age for the Diagnosis, and Diagnostic Tools. A Scoping Review (2021) · cites this paper as [19]
A consensus on the predictive power of early indicators of DLD is still missing.
“Nonetheless, a consensus on the predictive power of these early indicators is still missing [19,20,22].”
From Developmental Language Disorder: Early Predictors, Age for the Diagnosis, and Diagnostic Tools. A Scoping Review (2021) · cites this paper as [19]
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- Authors
- Snowling, M. J., Duff, F. J., Nash, H. M., & Hulme, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Snowling, Margaret J.
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2015-12-17
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1360-1369
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- PMC
- PMC5132029
- OpenAlex
- W2213327213
- Cited by
- 168
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 24.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (WT082036AIA)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- language impairment, developmental trajectories, literacy outcomes, reading difficulties, preschool children, middle childhood, language assessment, sex differences
- MeSH terms
- Literacy, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Language Disorders, Male
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