The development of the mammalian outer and middle ear
Open accessAbstract
The mammalian ear is a complex structure divided into three main parts: the outer; middle; and inner ear. These parts are formed from all three germ layers and neural crest cells, which have to integrate successfully in order to form a fully functioning organ of hearing. Any defect in development of the outer and middle ear leads to conductive hearing loss, while defects in the inner ear can lead to sensorineural hearing loss. This review focuses on the development of the parts of the ear involved with sound transduction into the inner ear, and the parts largely ignored in the world of hearing research: the outer and middle ear. The published data on the embryonic origin, signalling, genetic control, development and timing of the mammalian middle and outer ear are reviewed here along with new data showing the Eustachian tube cartilage is of dual embryonic origin. The embryonic origin of some of these structures has only recently been uncovered ( Science , 339 , 2013, 1453; Development , 140 , 2013, 4386), while the molecular mechanisms controlling the growth, structure and integration of many outer and middle ear components are hardly known. The genetic analysis of outer and middle ear development is rather limited, with a small number of genes often affecting either more than one part of the ear or having only very small effects on development. This review therefore highlights the necessity for further research into the development of outer and middle ear structures, which will be important for the understanding and treatment of conductive hearing loss.
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The finding of a larger proportion of ear-associated loci implicated in facial shape than face-associated loci implicated in ear morphology is consistent with the longer span of early development of the face (4th to 9th gestation week) compared to the outer ear (6th and 7th gestation week).
“The finding of a larger proportion of ear-associated loci implicated in facial shape than face-associated loci implicated in ear morphology is consistent with the longer span of early development of the face (4th to 9th gestation week) compared to the outer ear (6th and 7th gestation week) [31,32].”
From Combined genome-wide association study of 136 quantitative ear morphology traits in multiple populations reveal 8 novel loci (2023) · cites this paper as [31]
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Sánchez-Villagra, M. R., Geiger, M., & Schneider, R. A. (2016) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.160107 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
The nervous system orchestrates and integrates craniofacial development: a review
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- Authors
- Anthwal, N., & Thompson, H.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Thompson, Hannah
- Venue
- Journal of Anatomy
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2015-07-30
- Volume
- 228
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 217-232
- ISSN
- 0021-8782 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7580
- PMC
- PMC4718165
- OpenAlex
- W1918696209
- Cited by
- 197
- References
- 149
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6
- FWCI
- 1.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Anatomy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- Leverhulme Trust
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Hearing, Cochlea, Tinnitus, Genetics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Genetics › Congenital Ear and Nasal Anomalies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Otorhinolaryngology › Ear Surgery and Otitis Media
- Keywords
- external ear, middle ear, embryonic origin, neural crest cells, conductive hearing loss, auditory transduction, genetic control of development, signaling pathways, inner ear
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Ear, External, Ear, Middle, Hearing, Mammals
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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