One‐year follow‐up CT findings in COVID‐19 patients: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Open accessAbstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) often causes radiological and functional pulmonary sequelae. However, evidence on 1-year follow-up of pulmonary sequelae is limited. We aimed to investigate the characteristics and time-course of pulmonary sequelae after recovery from COVID-19 through 1-year follow-up. We searched PubMed and EMBASE databases on 25 February 2022, and included studies with computed tomography (CT) findings at the 1-year follow-up. The extracted data on CT findings were analysed using a one-group meta-analysis. We further analysed the data in relation to COVID-19 severity, improvement rate and lung function. Fifteen eligible studies (N = 3134) were included. One year after COVID-19, 32.6% (95% CI 24.0-42.6, I 2 = 92.9%) presented with residual CT abnormalities. Ground-glass opacity and fibrotic-like changes were frequently observed in 21.2% (95% CI 15.4-28.4, I 2 = 86.7%) and 20.6% (95% CI 11.0-35.2, I 2 = 91.9%), respectively. While the gradual recovery was seen on CT (52.9% [mid-term] vs. 32.6% [1 year]), the frequency of CT abnormalities was higher in the severe/critical cases than in the mild/moderate cases (37.7% vs. 20.7%). In particular, fibrotic changes showed little improvement between 4-7 months and 1 year after COVID-19. Pulmonary function tests at 1 year also showed the decline in diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide, especially in severe/critical cases. Our meta-analysis indicated that residual CT abnormalities were common in hospita…
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Patients who required supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilation were more likely to have residual CT abnormalities at one-year follow-up than those who did not.
“Likewise, patients who required supplemental oxygen or mechanical ventilation were more likely to have residual CT abnormalities at one-year follow-up than those who did not [33].”
From Protective effect of COVID-19 vaccination against long COVID syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as [33]
Several studies reported that the disease severity correlated with the frequency and duration of sequelae.
“Several studies reported that the disease severity correlated with the frequency and duration of sequelae [31-33].”
From Protective effect of COVID-19 vaccination against long COVID syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2023) · cites this paper as [33]
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Self-citationFollow-up study on COVID-19 survivors one year after discharge from hospital
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“lymphopenia, elevated D-dimer, C-reactive protein and lactate dehydrogenase have been suggested as possible risk factors for fibrotic changes as well as the severity.(6,12,13,15,19,35) These fibrotic findings may represent permanent lung damage, and the number of patients affected by COVID-19 is substantial.”
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“The extent of CT findings also appeared to be related to severity.(10,16) Our results were similar to SARS-CoV-1 in 2003, where 30%–40% of survivors presented radiological abnormalities at 6 months to 1 year after recovery.”
BackgroundResultAssessment of Sequelae of COVID-19 Nearly 1 Year After Diagnosis
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One-year follow-up of chest CT findings in patients after SARS-CoV-2 infection
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“These fibrotic findings may represent permanent lung damage, and the number of patients affected by COVID-19 is substantial.(31,33) Hence, despite the argument that mechanical ventilation may cause barotrauma, resulting in iatrogenic fibrosis after acute respiratory distress syndrome,(20,36) the fibrotic signs on CT a…”
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“lymphopenia, elevated D-dimer, C-reactive protein and lactate dehydrogenase have been suggested as possible risk factors for fibrotic changes as well as the severity.(6,12,13,15,19,35) These fibrotic findings may represent permanent lung damage, and the number of patients affected by COVID-19 is substantial.”
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“However, a few factors can drive these effects.”
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“However, inflammatory lesions tend to resolve over time (30), whereas fibrotic changes (25, 26) may persist in 21–29% of patients, according to two recent meta-analyses (6, 31).”
BackgroundRadiological Findings as Predictors of COVID-19 Lung Sequelae: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Alilou, S., Zangiabadian, M., Pouramini, A., Jaberinezhad, M., Shobeiri, P., Ghozy, S. A., Haseli, S., & Beizavi, Z. (2023) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2023.06.002 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“[32] discovered that even after a year of follow-up, fibrotic changes showed little improvement, indicating the need for a low-cost modality that does not expose patients to ionizing”
BackgroundImpact of COVID infection on lung function test and quality of life
Toh, M. R., Teo, Y. R., Poh, L. C. R., Tang, Y., Soh, R. Y., Sharma, K., Kalyanasundaram, G., & Poh, K. C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43710-w · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“It is known that COVID-19 survivors with mild/moderate disease seldom sustain significant structural lung abnormalities 34,35 .”
BackgroundTwo‐ and 3‐year outcomes in convalescent individuals with COVID‐19: A prospective cohort study
Yang, H., Guan, L., Yang, T., Ma, H., Liu, X., Li, X., Li, J., & Tong, Z. (2024) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.29566 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Imaging in pulmonary infections of immunocompetent adult patients
Pochepnia, S., Grabczak, E. M., Johnson, E. J., Eyüboğlu, F. Ö., Akkerman, O. W., & Prosch, H. (2024) · Breathe · doi:10.1183/20734735.0186-2023 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Serial CT scans are valuable for monitoring disease progression, resolution and development of complications (pleural effusions, pneumothorax, abscess formation, pulmonary fibrosis) [67].”
BackgroundKanth, S. M., Huapaya, J. A., Gairhe, S., Wang, H., Tian, X., Demirkale, C. Y., Hou, C., Ma, J., Kuhns, D. B., Fink, D. L., et al. (2024) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2024.101642 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Performance of spiral UTE-MRI of the lung in post-COVID patients
Fauveau, V., Jacobi, A., Bernheim, A., Chung, M., Benkert, T., Fayad, Z. A., & Feng, L. (2022) · Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1016/j.mri.2022.12.002 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Quality of Life in Post-COVID-19 Patients after Hospitalization
Ajtić, O. M., Stanisavljevic, D. M., Miljatović, S., Dragojević, T., Živković, E., Šabanović, M., & Čokić, V. P. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10091666 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Another study found that residual CT abnormalities were common in hospitalized COVID-19 patients one year after recovery, especially fibrotic changes in severe and critical cases [19].”
BackgroundLong-term respiratory consequences of COVID-19 related pneumonia: a cohort study
Eizaguirre, S., Sabater, G., Belda, S., Calderón, J. C., Pineda, V., Comas‐Cufí, M., Bonnin, M., & Orriols, R. (2023) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-023-02627-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“This abnormal functional test has already been reported as the most frequent and persistent change after COVID-19 pneumonia [3], which has been attributed to interstitial abnormalities, pulmonary vascular abnormalities [11] and, even, to air trapping due to distal airways abnormalities [12].”
InfluentialReview of Hyperpolarized Pulmonary Functional 129Xe MR for Long‐COVID
Wild, J. M., Gleeson, F. V., Svenningsen, S., Grist, J. T., Saunders, L. C., Collier, G. J., Sharma, M., Tcherner, S., Mozaffaripour, A., Matheson, A. M., et al. (2023) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.28940 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Rehabilitation Improves Persistent Symptoms of COVID-19
Campos, M. C., Nery, T., Speck, A. E., Arpini, M., Antunes, M. M., Alves, A. C. D. B., Santos, N. D. S., Matos, M. P. P., Schmidt, N., Bicca, L. R., et al. (2023) · American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/phm.0000000000002350 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Dyspnea and long COVID patients
NUGENT, K. M., & Berdine, G. G. (2024) · The American Journal of the Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.amjms.2024.07.024 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Sitbon, A., Hauw‐Berlemont, C., Mebarki, M., Heming, N., Mayaux, J., Diehl, J., Demoule, A., Annane, D., Marois, C., Demeret, S., et al. (2024) · Stem Cell Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13287-024-03729-w · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“%) presented with ground-glass opacities 1 year after hospitalization [9].”
BackgroundPredictors of pulmonary sequelae after COVID-19 pneumonia: A 12-month follow-up study
Bernardinello, N., Cocconcelli, E., Giraudo, C., Daverio, M., Castelli, G., Petrarulo, S., Bovo, M., Fichera, G., Cavinato, S., Cattelan, A. M., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1084002 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Chest CT features and functional correlates of COVID-19 at 3 months and 12 months follow-up
Kumar, K., Ratnakumar, R., Collin, S. M., Berrocal-Almanza, L. C., Ricci, P., Al-Zubaidy, M., Coker, R. K., Coleman, M., Elkin, S., Mallia, P., et al. (2023) · Clinical Medicine · doi:10.7861/clinmed.2023-0059 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Diagnostic performance of eNose technology in COVID-19 patients after hospitalization
van Raaij, B. F. M., Veltman, J. D., Hameete, J. F. A., Stöger, J. L., & Geelhoed, J. J. M. (2023) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-023-02407-6 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lytzen, A. A., Helt, T. W., Christensen, J., Lund, T. K., Kalhauge, A., Rönsholt, F. F., Podlekavera, D., Arndal, E., Lebech, A., Hanel, B., et al. (2024) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep091757 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Besides common pulmonary symptoms, such as breathlessness, chest pain and fatigue, grouped under the term ‘long COVID’, numerous studies have reported a severity-dependent reduction in pulmonary diffusing capacity ( D L ) (Huntley et al., 2022; Katzenstein et al., 2022; Watanabe et al., 2022).”
BackgroundOrganizing pneumonia in hospitalized COVID-19 patients: risk factors and long-term outcomes
Cuerpo, S., Hernández‐González, F., Benegas, M., Albacar, N., López-Giraldo, A., Cobo, I., Suarez, S., Torres, V., Salazar, A., Soler, N., et al. (2025) · Pneumonia · doi:10.1186/s41479-025-00169-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In another study, Watanabe et al. [18] performed a meta-analysis of 15 studies; it is noteworthy that one year after COVID-19, 32.6% of patients presented residual abnormalities (ground-glass opacity 21.2% and fibrotic-like changes 20.6% were frequently observed), the frequency of CT abnormalities…”
InfluentialBompani, N., Bertella, L., Barbieri, V., Scarabel, L., Scarpina, F., Perucca, L., & Rossi, P. (2023) · Journal of International Medical Research · doi:10.1177/03000605221148435 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wassipaul, C., Kifjak, D., Milos, R., Prayer, F., Roehrich, S., Winter, M., Beer, L., Watzenboeck, M. L., Pochepnia, S., Weber, M., et al. (2024) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-024-10754-z · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Fanni, S. C., Volpi, F., Colligiani, L., Chimera, D., Tonerini, M., Pistelli, F., Pancani, R., Airoldi, C., Bartholmai, B. J., Cioni, D., et al. (2024) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics14050550 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Brogna, B., Bignardi, E., Megliola, A., Laporta, A., Rocca, A. L., Volpe, M., & Musto, L. A. (2023) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines11082113 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Manta, A., Michelakis, I., Dafni, M., Spanoudaki, A., Krontira, S., Tsoutsouras, T., Flessa, K., Papadopoulos, C., Mantzos, D. S., & Tzavara, V. (2023) · Journal of Investigative Medicine · doi:10.1177/10815589231212899 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“17 20 Among COVID-19 survivors, cognitive dysfunction, neurological and neuropsychiatric issues appear to be prevalent.”
BackgroundHendrix, N., Sidky, H., & Sahner, D. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.08.03.23293612 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“(11,12) Prior studies have found that COVID-19 confers protection against subsequent infection for approximately one year.”
Song, J., Lee, J. H., Park, H., Jang, M., & Yoon, S. H. (2026) · Korean Journal of Radiology · doi:10.3348/kjr.2025.1272 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The observed decrease in GGOs and the stability of fibrosis align with the 1-year follow-up findings of Watanabe et al. [33], whose meta-analysis showed that fibrotic-like changes persisted in 20.6% patients at 1 year, whereas GGOs gradually resolved over time.”
InfluentialInfection promotes Ser‐214 phosphorylation important for generation of cytotoxic tau variants
Balczon, R., Choi, C., Deweever, A., Zhou, C., Gwin, M. S., Kolb, C., Francis, C. M., Lin, M. T., & Stevens, T. (2023) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.202300620rr · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pulmonary recovery after COVID-19 – a review
Sonnweber, T., Birgit, S., Weiß, G., & Löffler‐Ragg, J. (2023) · Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1080/17476348.2023.2210837 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
129Xe MRI Ventilation Textures and Longitudinal Quality-of-Life Improvements in Long-COVID
Kooner, H. K., Sharma, M., McIntosh, M. J., Dhaliwal, I., Nicholson, J. M., Kirby, M., Svenningsen, S., & Párraga, G. (2024) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2024.03.014 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Generation of short-term follow-up chest CT images using a latent diffusion model in COVID-19
Kawata, N., Iwao, Y., Matsuura, Y., Higashide, T., Okamoto, T., Sekiguchi, Y., Nagayoshi, M., Takiguchi, Y., Suzuki, T., & Haneishi, H. (2024) · Japanese Journal of Radiology · doi:10.1007/s11604-024-01699-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Suppression of miR-155 Attenuates Lung Cytokine Storm Induced by SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Soni, D. K., Cabrera‐Luque, J., Kar, S., Ahmed, A., Sen, C., Devaney, J., & Biswas, R. (2025) · Journal of Interferon & Cytokine Research · doi:10.1089/jir.2024.0253 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Radiographical data show that lung damage may last up to a year post-infection (Caruso et al., 2021; Luger et al., 2022; Pan et al., 2022; Watanabe et al., 2022), with about 40% of patients demonstrating reduced lung function at the 12-month follow-up (Tarraso et al., 2022).”
Openshaw, J. J., Chen, J., Rodriguez, R. M., Gottlieb, M. A., McCullough, K., Santangelo, M., Hill, M. J., Gatling, K., Idris, A. H., McDonald, S., et al. (2025) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciaf225 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The interval between infections was shorter during the Omicron period, and the closer stacking of repeated infections and potential resulting organ-specific damage [26, 27] may increase the risk of persistent, long-term symptoms.”
Four-year respiratory consequences of COVID-19 related pneumonia: a longitudinal cohort study
Eizaguirre, S., Sabater, G., Comas‐Cufí, M., Belda, S., Calderón, J. C., Pineda, V., Bonnin-Vilaplana, M., & Orriols, R. (2025) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-025-03772-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cobo‐Ibáñez, T., Ortega, G. M. M., Sánchez‐Piedra, C., Martín, G. S. S., Thuissard, I. J., Gutiérrez, V. L., Rangel, L. S., Yubero, C. G., Esteban, A., Aspiroz, E. L., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-54196-5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Azour, L., Chandarana, H., Maier, C., Babb, J. S., & Moore, W. H. (2024) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2024.02.021 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Predictors of the presence of radiological abnormalities 6 months after severe COVID-19 pneumonia
Roig‐Martí, C., Catalán, I. P., Varea-Villanueva, M., Folgado-Escudero, S., Navarro-Ballester, A., Fernández-García, M. P., Segura-Fábrega, A., Rodríguez, G. H., Bajo, E. D., Juana, S. F., et al. (2024) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-024-09767-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…it is a finding also observed by other authors and even described in up to 21% of patients 12 months after pneumonia, it is surprising that the most frequent radiological change 6 months after pneumonia is ground glass, a characteristic manifestation of the initial phase of the infection [16].”
ResultGraham, E. L., D’Isabel, S., Lofrano‐Porto, A., & Smith, D. L. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21101383 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Characteristics and Prevalence of Sequelae after COVID-19: A Longitudinal Cohort Study
Lee, S. J., Baek, Y. J., Lee, S. H., Kim, J. H., Ahn, J. Y., Kim, J.-Y., Jeon, J. H., Seok, H., Choi, W. S., Park, D. W., et al. (2024) · Infection and Chemotherapy · doi:10.3947/ic.2024.0090 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Previous studies have reported the persistence of abnormal chest CT findings for several months post-infection [23, 24].”
COVID-19 pulmonary phenotypes and longitudinal patterns in the first wave of the pandemic
Chimera, D., Maio, S., Romei, C., LIPERI, A. D., Barbieri, G., Tavanti, L. M., Pancani, R., Marchi, G., Desideri, M., Carpenè, N., et al. (2025) · Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2025.107952 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Patients monitoring in the City Clinical Hospital No. 52 at the beginning and end of the pandemic
Sukmarova, Z. N., Shishimorov, A. A., Parshin, V. V., & Gromov, A. I. (2025) · Medical Visualization · doi:10.24835/1607-0763-1496 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zimna, K., Sobiecka, M., Wakuliński, J., Wyrostkiewicz, D., Jankowska, E. A., Szturmowicz, M., & Tomkowski, W. Z. (2024) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v16060905 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Chest CT Findings 1 Year after COVID-19: Another Piece of the Post-Pandemic Puzzle
Párraga, G., & Svenningsen, S. (2023) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiol.231502 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Culiat, C. T., Soni, D. K., Malkes, W., Wienhold, M. D., Zhang, L., Henry, E., Dragan, M., Kar, S., Angeles, D. M., Eaker, S. S., et al. (2024) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.151198 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lee, K. S., Han, J., Chung, M. P., & Jeong, Y. J. (2023) · Radiology illustrated · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-6633-2_26 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Persistent pulmonary abnormalities after 18 months of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia
Valenzuela, C., de la Fuente, L., Hernández, S., Olivera, M. J., Molina, C., Montes, N. G., Benavides, C., & Caballero, P. (2024) · Radiología (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.rxeng.2023.10.002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Souza, J. A., Pasqualoto, A. S., Cielo, C. A., Andriollo, D. B., & Moraes, D. A. D. O. (2024) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2024.04.001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Post-COVID Interstitial Lung Disease: How do We Deal with This New Entity?
Yüksel, A., Karadoğan, D., Hürsoy, N., Telatar, T. G., Kose, N., Marım, F., Kaya, İ., Er, A. B., Erçelik, M., Yuluğ, D. P., et al. (2024) · Balkan Medical Journal · doi:10.4274/balkanmedj.galenos.2024.2024-3-82 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“16,17 18-20 Pulmonary function abnormalities, especially restrictive ventilatory defect, in spirometry has been detected following a COVID-19 infection, with a moderate reduction in the lung diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide (DL CO ).”
An updated review of pulmonary radiological features of acute and chronic COVID-19
Tcheroyan, R., Makhoul, P., & Simpson, S. A. (2025) · Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1097/mcp.0000000000001152 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Greater central airway luminal area in people with COVID-19: a case–control series
Jeltema, J. L., Gorman, E. K., Ovrom, E. A., Ripoll, J. G., Dominelli, P. B., Joyner, M. J., Welch, B. T., Senefeld, J. W., & Wiggins, C. C. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-22005-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bahadır, S., Kabacaoglu, E., Memiş, K. B., Hasan, H. I., & Aydın, S. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11081321 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Ground glass opacities (GGOs), parenchymal bands/fibrous stripes, and reticulation were particularly common [12].”
BackgroundJaturapisanukul, S., Yuangtrakul, N., Wangcharoenrung, D., Kanchanarat, K., Radeesri, K., Maneerit, J., Manomaipiboon, A., Rojtangkom, K., Ananthanalapa, C., Rungrojthanakit, S., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0286832 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Low-field MRI lung opacity severity associated with decreased DLCO in post-acute Covid-19 patients
Azour, L., Segal, L. N., Condos, R., Moore, W. H., Landini, N., Collazo, D., Sterman, D. H., Young, I., Ko, J. P., Brosnahan, S. B., et al. (2024) · Clinical Imaging · doi:10.1016/j.clinimag.2024.110307 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Contemporary Concise Review 2024: Respiratory Infections
Miyashita, N. (2025) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.70113 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“However, there are still many unknown aspects and long-COVID is one of the most important issues remaining after the COVID-19 pandemic [106–108].”
Rehabilitation in Survivors of COVID-19 (RE2SCUE): a non-randomized, controlled and open studyPreprint
Campos, M. C., Nery, T., Speck, A. E., Arpini, M., Antunes, M. M., Alves, A. C. D. B., Santos, N. D. S., Matos, M. P. P., Schmidt, N., Bicca, L. R., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.10.10.22280907 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lingering effects of COVID-19 in the care of perioperative patients
Jia, L., Navare, S. R., & Hoyler, M. M. (2024) · Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aco.0000000000001364 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Helt, T. W., Thomsen, R. S., Christensen, J., Lund, T. K., Kalhauge, A., Rönsholt, F. F., Podlekavera, D., Arndal, E., Lebech, A., Berg, R. M. G., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-025-07598-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“A total of 153 individuals were included in the study, all of whom underwent short-term follow-up at median 5.6 [4.7– 6.6] months after diagnosis, while 121 underwent interme - diate follow-up at median 12.5 [12.1–13.1] months after diagnosis.”
InfluentialOuyang, T., Huang, Z., Wei, S., Yang, J., Voskrebenzev, A., Vogel‐Claussen, J., Guo, S., & Yang, Q. (2025) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2025.111316 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Li, J., Xie, Z., Chen, Y., Jin, G., Lin, H., Xu, Q., Meng, Z., Liang, L., Chen, H., Guo, S., et al. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0343207 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“While gradual improvement was observed over time, fibrotic changes showed little improvement between 4–7 months and one year post-infection [13].”
Dolinay, T., Jun, D., Maller, A., Chung, A., Grimes, B. S., Hsu, L., Nelson, D. B., Villagas, B., Kim, G. H. J., & Goldin, J. G. (2022) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.75311.2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Short and Long of COVID-19
Simpson, S. A., Hershman, M., Nachiappan, A. C., Raptis, C. A., & Hammer, M. M. (2024) · Clinics in Chest Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2024.02.010 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kim, C., Seok, H., Kim, J.-Y., Park, D. W., van Assen, M., Cecco, C. N. D., Choi, H., Kim, C., Hwang, S. H., Yong, H. S., et al. (2024) · Journal of Korean Medical Science · doi:10.3346/jkms.2024.39.e228 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zaremba, S., Miller, A. J., Ovrom, E. A., Senefeld, J. W., Wiggins, C. C., Dominelli, P. B., Ganesh, R., Hurt, R. T., Bartholmai, B. J., Welch, B. T., et al. (2024) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00573.2024 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lee, J. E., Lee, H., Park, G., Chae, K. J., Jin, K. N., Castañer, E., Ghaye, B., Ko, J. P., Prosch, H., Simpson, S. A., et al. (2024) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-024-11075-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ying, Z., Zhu, Z., Hu, G., Pan, Z., Tan, W., Han, W., Wu, Z., Zhou, Z. X., Wang, J., Song, W., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1435337 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Challenges and Opportunities for Post-COVID Pulmonary Disease: A Focused Review of Immunomodulation
Verbeeck-Mendez, S., Orozco, I. L. D., Gavilánez-Chávez, G. E., Nava-Zavala, A. H., & Zavala-Cerna, M. G. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26083850 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Although there is the presence of fibrosis, not all changes indicate progressive pulmonary fibrosis, which is why CT should be complemented with PFTs [39,40].”
Radiological and Functional Pulmonary Evolution in Post-COVID-19 Patients: An Observational Study
Catharin, V. M. C. S., Zutin, T. L. M., Guiguer, É. L., Araújo, A. C., Laurindo, L. F., Chagas, E. F. B., Zorzetto, C. F. G., Bueno, P. C. D. S., Bueno, M. D. S., Nunes, Y. C., et al. (2023) · Diseases · doi:10.3390/diseases11030113 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“[39] found that the frequency of CT changes remained high one year after infection, especially among severe/critical patients for fibrotic changes.”
Recommendations from The Medical Education Editor
Lavercombe, M. (2022) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14367 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Vaccination and Patient Status of Long COVID-19 Hospitalized Patients: A Cohort Observational StudyPreprint
Kirbiš, S., Sobotkiewicz, N., Schaubach, B. A., Završnik, J., Kokol, P., Završnik, M., & Vošner, H. B. (2024) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202401.1613.v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
From brain fog to COVID toe: A head-to-toe review of long COVID
Stone, J. K., Berman, S. E., Zheng, W., Wilson, D. R., & Diaz, G. R. (2023) · American Journal of Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.25259/ajpps_2023_012 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Alteraciones pulmonares persistentes tras 18 meses de neumonía por SARS-CoV-2
Valenzuela, C., de la Fuente, L., Hernández, S., Olivera, M. J., Molina, C., Montes, N. G., Benavides, C., & Caballero, P. (2023) · Radiología · doi:10.1016/j.rx.2023.10.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aaløkken, T. M., Ashraf, H., Einvik, G., Lerum, T. V., Meltzer, C., Rodriguez, J. R., Skjønsberg, O. H., & Stavem, K. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0302896 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Birtolo, L. I., Pietro, G. D., Ciuffreda, A., Improta, R., Monosilio, S., Prosperi, S., Cimino, S., Galea, N., Severino, P., Galardo, G., et al. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40409 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fang, X., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Lv, W., Liu, L., Feng, Y., Liu, L., Pan, F., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1463320 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
LEF1-AS1 Deregulation in the Peripheral Blood of Patients with Persistent Post-COVID Symptoms
Madè, A., Piella, S. N., Ranucci, M., Gaetano, C., Renna, L. V., Cardani, R., Spinetti, G., Milani, V., & Martelli, F. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26104806 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…numerous studies have investigated the long-term effects of COVID-19 one year after infection [13], mainly focusing on pulmonary functions and respiratory outcomes [14–16] and cognitive deficits [17], there are limited data on the condition beyond 12 months from the onset of COVID-19 [5,18–21].”
ten Persigehl, T., Fervers, P., Bucher, A. M., Isfort, P., Maintz, D. C., Penzkofer, T., Sähn, M.-J., Vogl, T. J., Kottlors, J., & Doellinger, F. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1578282 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Svensson, A. M., Björnson, M., Sköld, M. C., Kauczor, H., Nygren‐Bonnier, M., Bruchfeld, J., Runold, M., Kistner, A., & Nyrén, S. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0335075 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These findings align with previous reports of persistent fibrosis-like abnormalities on CT at six months and beyond [33,34].”
Cicco, S., Marozzi, M. S., Palumbo, C. A., Sturdà, E., Fusillo, A., Scarilli, F., Albanese, F., Morelli, C., Bavaro, D. F., Diella, L., et al. (2023) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina59020203 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
COVID-19 progression in hospitalized patients using follow-up in vivo CT and ex vivo microCT
Geudens, V., Slambrouck, J. V., Aerts, G., Willems, L., Goos, T., Kaes, J., Zajacová, A., Gyselinck, I., Aelbrecht, C., Vermaut, A., et al. (2023) · Journal of Thoracic Disease · doi:10.21037/jtd-22-1488 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
ERS International Congress 2023: highlights from the Thoracic Oncology Assembly
Catarata, M. J., Creamer, A. W., Dias, M., Toland, S., Chaabouni, M., Verbeke, K., Naia, J. V., Hassan, M., Naidu, S. B., Lynch, G., et al. (2023) · ERJ Open Research · doi:10.1183/23120541.00860-2023 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
COVID-19, A New Possible Mimicker of Interstitial Lung Disease Related to Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome
Laneri, A., Cerri, S., Casa, G. D., Moretti, A., Manfredi, A., Sebastiani, M., Clini, E. M., & Salvarani, C. (2023) · Case Reports in Medicine · doi:10.1155/2023/9915553 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lorini, F. L., on behalf of the CARIPLO Study Group, Labanca, R., Bugada, D., Cazzaniga, S., D’Amico, F., Grazioli, L., Marmiere, M., Novelli, L., Pozzi, M., et al. (2024) · Minerva Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.23736/s2784-8477.23.02085-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bahgat, S. M., Abdelhamid, A. M., Gaber, O. A., Abdelsalam, N. M., & Eldin, R. M. B. (2024) · Egyptian Journal of Chest Diseases and Tuberculosis · doi:10.4103/ecdt.ecdt_79_23 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zhao, L., Lancaster, A. C., Patel, R., Zhang, H., Duong, T. Q., Jiao, Z., Lin, C. T., Healey, T. T., Wright, T., Wu, J., et al. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31751 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Short and Long of COVID-19
Simpson, S. A., Hershman, M., Nachiappan, A. C., Raptis, C. A., & Hammer, M. M. (2024) · Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.rdc.2024.09.004 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Watanabe, A., So, M., Iwagami, M., Fukunaga, K., Takagi, H., Kabata, H., & Kuno, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Tsukuba Hospital (JP)
- Mount Sinai Beth Israel (US)
- University of Tsukuba (JP)
- Keio University (JP)
- Shizuoka Medical Center (JP)
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kuno, Toshiki
- ORCID
- Venue
- Respirology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-06-12
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 605-616
- ISSN
- 1323-7799 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1843
- PMC
- PMC9350074
- OpenAlex
- W4282561286
- Cited by
- 139
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 12
- FWCI
- 4.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Respirology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › COVID-19 Clinical Research Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Interstitial Lung Diseases and Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, pulmonary sequelae, long COVID, ground-glass opacities, pulmonary fibrosis, disease severity, diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide, lung function decline, one-year follow-up
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Lung, Retrospective Studies, Tomography, X-Ray Computed, Disease Progression
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