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Cited by 185Astrophysics and Star Formation StudiesAstrophysical Phenomena and ObservationsGalaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena

Star Formation Around Supermassive Black Holes

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Bonnell, I. A., Rice, W. K. M.·2008·Science
DOI 10.1126/science.1160653
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Abstract

The presence of young massive stars orbiting on eccentric rings within a few tenths of a parsec of the supermassive black hole in the galactic center is challenging for theories of star formation. The high tidal shear from the black hole should tear apart the molecular clouds that form stars elsewhere in the Galaxy, and transport of stars to the galactic center also appears unlikely during their lifetimes. We conducted numerical simulations of the infall of a giant molecular cloud that interacts with the black hole. The transfer of energy during closest approach allows part of the cloud to become bound to the black hole, forming an eccentric disk that quickly fragments to form stars. Compressional heating due to the black hole raises the temperature of the gas up to several hundred to several thousand kelvin, ensuring that the fragmentation produces relatively high stellar masses. These stars retain the eccentricity of the disk and, for a sufficiently massive initial cloud, produce an extremely top-heavy distribution of stellar masses. This potentially repetitive process may explain the presence of multiple eccentric rings of young stars in the presence of a supermassive black hole.

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  • Numerical simulations suggest that during this event, about 10-30% gas was directly accreted onto the black hole over a viscous time-scale of ~10^7 yr with an accretion rate of ~10^-4-10^-3 M⊙/yr.

    “Numerical simulations suggest that during this event, about 10 -30% gas was directly accreted onto the black hole over a viscous time-scale of ∼ 10 7 yr with an accretion rate of ∼ 10 -4 -10 -3 M ⊙ yr -1 .”

    From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Bonnell & Rice 2008

    The main text reports that 10–30% of the infalling gas was counted as accreted, but explains that this means it entered the black-hole sink particle’s 4000-AU radius, not that it was directly accreted by the black hole. The same section gives a viscous timescale of about 10^7 years and rates of 10^-4–10^-3 solar masses per year only under the assumption that all the gas in the unresolved inner disk subsequently accretes; the simulations did not determine that disk’s evolution. (LLM, conf=0.89)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The accretion could have produced about 0.1%-1% of Eddington luminosity, i.e. 5×10^41-42 erg/s.

    “The accretion, therefore, could have produced about 0 . 1% -1% of Eddington luminosity, i.e. 5 × 10 41 -42 erg s -1 (Bonnell & Rice 2008; Hobbs & Nayakshin 2009).”

    From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Bonnell & Rice 2008

    In the main text (page not specified), Bonnell and Rice estimate a maximum accretion luminosity of about 1% of Eddington, supporting the upper percentage in the claim. They give that luminosity as roughly 10^43 erg/s, not 5×10^42 erg/s, and do not explicitly state the 0.1% lower bound. The estimate is conditional on gas accreting from an inner disk whose evolution the simulations did not determine. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The origin of the nuclear young stellar disks has been explained in terms of star-formation in an accretion disk around Sgr A*.

    “The origin of the nuclear young stellar disks has been explained in terms of star-formation in an accretion disk around Sgr A ∗ (Levin & Beloborodov 2003; Bonnell & Rice 2008; Nayakshin & Zubovas 2018; Generozov et al. 2022).”

    From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Bonnell & Rice 2008

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Authors
Bonnell, I. A., & Rice, W. K. M.
Affiliations
  • University of St Andrews (GB)
  • Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St. Andrews, North Haugh, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9SS, UK.
Corresponding author
Bonnell, I. A.
ORCID
Bonnell, I. A.
Venue
Science
Publisher
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published
2008-08-22
Volume
321
Issue
5892
Pages
1060-1062
ISSN
  • 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
  • 1095-9203
DOI
10.1126/science.1160653
OpenAlex
W2032293292
Cited by
185
References
24
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 16
FWCI
8.94
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Science (publishedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • arXiv (Cornell University)
Funders
Science and Technology Facilities Council (PP/D000890/1, PP/F000065/1)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
Keywords
star formation, supermassive black holes, Galactic Center, young massive stars, giant molecular clouds, tidal disruption, cloud fragmentation, black hole accretion, Milky Way

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