Cited by 618Management Theory and PracticeBehavioral and Psychological StudiesAcademic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology

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What Happened at Hawthorne?: New evidence suggests the Hawthorne effect resulted from operant reinforcement contingencies.

Parsons, H. M.·1974·Science

DOI 10.1126/science.183.4128.922

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Abstract

The Hawthorne effect in experimental research is the unwanted effect of the experimental operations themselves. Following the Hawthorne studies, various explanations have been proposed to account for rising rates of production. Although in the Relay Assembly Test Room experiment the experimental operations may have produced other extraneous variables, a reexamination based on new and neglected evidence has yielded a new interpretation. The new variable, made more plausible because research in other contexts has shown it to have similar effects, is a combination of information feedback and financial reward. It is an example of the control of behavior by its consequences. Although several approaches may be taken to explain the effects of response-consequence contingencies, I have favored operant conditioning because it seems to account for progressive increases in response rate—the Hawthorne phenomenon. Generalizing from the particular situation at Hawthorne, I would define the Hawthorne effect as the confounding that occurs if experimenters fail to realize how the consequences of subjects' performance affect what subjects do. But the Hawthorne effect need not be viewed solely as a problem in conducting experiments. The phenomenon that created it should be studied in its own right, as Sommer suggested with a different phenomenon in mind. The study of response-consequence contingencies might well be extended to the examination of motivation in industrial workers.

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Background
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Aljafari, A., Rice, C., Gallagher, J. E., & Hosey, M. T. (2015) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0754-6 · Cited by 33
Rate of Occult Specimen Provenance Complications in Routine Clinical Practice
Pfeifer, J. D., & Liu, J. (2012) · American Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1309/ajcp50wezhwifciv · Cited by 33
A simulation design for research evaluating safety innovations in anaesthesia*
Merry, A., Weller, J. M., ROBINSON, B. J., Warman, G. R., Davies, E., Shaw, J., Cheeseman, J. F., & Wilson, L. F. (2008) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2008.05638.x · Cited by 33
A model of the dark side of expatriate–host country national relationships
Ljubica, J., Shaffer, M. A., Tin, S., & McKouen, K. (2019) · Journal of Global Mobility The Home of Expatriate Management Research · doi:10.1108/jgm-09-2018-0046 · Cited by 32
A randomized comparison between records made with an anesthesia information management system and by hand, and evaluation of the Hawthorne effect
Edwards, K.-E., Hagen, S. M., Hannam, J. A., Kruger, C., Yu, R., & Merry, A. (2013) · Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d anesthésie · doi:10.1007/s12630-013-0003-y · Cited by 32
Assessment Effects in Educational and Psychosocial Intervention Trials: An Important but Often‐Overlooked Problem
Song, M., & Ward, S. E. (2015) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.21651 · Cited by 35
Interpreting Null Findings from Trials of Alcohol Brief Interventions
Heather, N. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00085 · Cited by 31
Reducing Unplanned Extubations in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit: A Systematic Approach
Rachman, B. R., Watson, R. L., Woods, N., & Mink, R. B. (2009) · International Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1155/2009/820495 · Cited by 32
Errors and adverse outcomes on a surgical service: What is the role of residents?
Borenstein, S. H., Choi, M., Gerstle, J. T., & Langer, J. C. (2004) · Journal of Surgical Research · doi:10.1016/j.jss.2004.05.014 · Cited by 32
An Exploratory Study of the Team Characteristics Model Using Organizational Teams
Strubler, D. C., & York, K. M. (2007) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496407304338 · Cited by 33
“There may have been a Hawthorne-type effect due to the feedback given to team members (Kahn, 1975; Parsons, 1974; Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939).”
Background
The Effect of an Ergonomic Intervention on Musculoskeletal, Psychosocial and Visual Strain of VDT Data Entry Work: The United States Part of the International Study
Dainoff, M. J., Cohen, B. G. F., & Dainoff, M. H. (2005) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2005.11076630 · Cited by 32
Influence of multiple initiatives in Sweden to enhance ARB prescribing efficiency following generic losartan; findings and implications for other countries
Godman, B., Wettermark, B., Miranda, J., Bennie, M., Martin, A., & Malmström, R. E. (2013) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/ijcp.12130 · Cited by 31
Gaining affective resources for work-family enrichment: A multisource experience sampling study of micro-role transitions
Wu, C., Hunter, E. M., & Sublett, L. W. (2021) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2021.103541 · Cited by 33
Development and evaluation of a multimedia CD-ROM for exercise during pregnancy and postpartum
Hausenblas, H. A., Brewer, B. W., Raalte, J. L. V., Cook, B. J., Downs, D. S., Weis, C. A., Nigg, C. R., & Cruz, A. C. (2008) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2007.10.017 · Cited by 31
Influence of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Coaching and Provider Role on Perception of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Quality During Simulated Pediatric Cardiac Arrest*
Cheng, A., Kessler, D. O., Lin, Y., Tofil, N. M., Hunt, E. A., Davidson, J. M., Chatfield, J., & Duff, J. P. (2019) · Pediatric Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1097/pcc.0000000000001871 · Cited by 30
Hawthorne, Topeka, and the Issue of Science Versus Advocacy in Organizational Behavior
Yorks, L., & Whitsett, D. A. (1985) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/258208 · Cited by 30
Construction of a Multidimensional Scale of Job Satisfaction
Shouksmith, G., Pajo, K., & Jepsen, A. (1990) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1990.67.2.355 · Cited by 30
A retrospective quasi-experimental study of a community crisis house for patients with severe and persistent mental illness
Siskind, D., Harris, M., Kisely, S., Brogan, J., Pirkis, J., Crompton, D., & Whiteford, H. (2013) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867413484369 · Cited by 29
“As this was a retrospective evaluation using administrative data, it is unlikely that the results are due to a ‘Hawthorne’ effect (Parsons, 1974).”
Method
Promoting Middle School Students’ Engagement Through Incorporating iPad Apps in EFL/ESL Classes
Al-Bogami, B., & Elyas, T. (2020) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244020926570 · Cited by 29
“However, the researchers acknowledged the impact of the Hawthorne effect (Parsons, 1974), which concerns research participation, the consequent awareness of being studied, and possible impact on behavior (Chiesa & Hobbs, 2008; Kompier, 2006).”
Background
A History of Organizational Behavior Management
Brethower, D. M., Dickinson, A. M., Johnson, D. A., & Johnson, C. M. (2021) · Journal of Organizational Behavior Management · doi:10.1080/01608061.2021.1924340 · Cited by 36
“…of operant techniques for a better understanding of classic organizational psychology events such as the Hawthorne studies began to emerge (Parsons, 1974), although myths about those studies still persist decades later in traditional textbooks as a form of academic folklore (Olson, Hogan,…”
Background
Persistent Barriers to Timely Catheter Removal Identified from Clinical Observations and Interviews
Quinn, M., Ameling, J. M., Forman, J. H., Krein, S. L., Manojlovich, M., Fowler, K. E., King, E. A., & Meddings, J. A. (2019) · The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety · doi:10.1016/j.jcjq.2019.10.004 · Cited by 32
Impact of online computer assisted learning on education: Experimental evidence from economically vulnerable areas of China
Bai, Y. P., Tang, B., Wang, B., Mo, D., Zhang, L., Rozelle, S., Auden, E., & Mandell, B. (2023) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2023.102385 · Cited by 28

Authors: Parsons, H. M.
Affiliations: Riverside Research Institute (US)
Corresponding author: Parsons, H. M.
Venue: Science
Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published: 1974-03-08
Volume: 183
Issue: 4128
Pages: 922-932
ISSN: 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
1095-9203
DOI: 10.1126/science.183.4128.922
OpenAlex: W1987677291
Cited by: 615
References: 24
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 10.19
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Science (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Management Theory and Practice
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
Keywords: Hawthorne effect, Hawthorne studies, information feedback, monetary rewards, operant conditioning, confounding variables, employee motivation, industrial workers, production rate

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What Happened at Hawthorne?: New evidence suggests the Hawthorne effect resulted from operant reinforcement contingencies.

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