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Cited by 618Management Theory and PracticeBehavioral and Psychological StudiesAcademic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 24 of the 24 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

What Happened at Hawthorne?: New evidence suggests the Hawthorne effect resulted from operant reinforcement contingencies.

Parsons, H. M.·1974·Science
DOI 10.1126/science.183.4128.922
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Abstract

The Hawthorne effect in experimental research is the unwanted effect of the experimental operations themselves. Following the Hawthorne studies, various explanations have been proposed to account for rising rates of production. Although in the Relay Assembly Test Room experiment the experimental operations may have produced other extraneous variables, a reexamination based on new and neglected evidence has yielded a new interpretation. The new variable, made more plausible because research in other contexts has shown it to have similar effects, is a combination of information feedback and financial reward. It is an example of the control of behavior by its consequences. Although several approaches may be taken to explain the effects of response-consequence contingencies, I have favored operant conditioning because it seems to account for progressive increases in response rate—the Hawthorne phenomenon. Generalizing from the particular situation at Hawthorne, I would define the Hawthorne effect as the confounding that occurs if experimenters fail to realize how the consequences of subjects' performance affect what subjects do. But the Hawthorne effect need not be viewed solely as a problem in conducting experiments. The phenomenon that created it should be studied in its own right, as Sommer suggested with a different phenomenon in mind. The study of response-consequence contingencies might well be extended to the examination of motivation in industrial workers.

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Cites

Show all 24 references

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. ARGYLE, M, OCCUP PSYCHOL 27: 98 (1953).
  2. DALE, J, MANAGEMENT METHODS 16: 38 (1959).
  3. Ferster, C. B., Behavior Principles: 350 (1968).
  4. Ferster, C. B., Schedules of Reinforcement: 89 (1957).
  5. GAGNE, R.M., ORG BEHAV HUMAN PERF 3: 156 (1968).
  6. GIBBS, C. B., MANAGER: 374 (5 1944).
  7. MARRIOTT, R, OCCUP PSYCHOL 23: 47 (1949).
  8. PARSONS H.M. THESIS U CALIFORNIA (1963).
  9. PENNOCK, G.A., PERS J 8: 296 (1930).
  10. RATH, A.A., THE CASE FOR INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVES - MANAGEMENTS MOST POTENT MOTIVATIONAL TOOL, PERSONNEL JOURNAL 39: 172 (1960).
  11. SNOW, C.E., TECH ENG NEWS: 256 (11 1927).
  12. WHYTE, W.F., PSYCHOLOGY TODAY: 67 (4 1972).

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Metadata

Authors
Parsons, H. M.
Affiliations
Riverside Research Institute (US)
Corresponding author
Parsons, H. M.
Venue
Science
Publisher
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published
1974-03-08
Volume
183
Issue
4128
Pages
922-932
ISSN
  • 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
  • 1095-9203
DOI
10.1126/science.183.4128.922
OpenAlex
W1987677291
Cited by
615
References
24
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 29
FWCI
10.19
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Science (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Management Theory and Practice
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
Keywords
Hawthorne effect, Hawthorne studies, information feedback, monetary rewards, operant conditioning, confounding variables, employee motivation, industrial workers, production rate

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