Encoding of environmental illumination by primate melanopsin neurons
Open accessAbstract
Light regulates physiology, mood, and behavior through signals sent to the brain by intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). How primate ipRGCs sense light is unclear, as they are rare and challenging to target for electrophysiological recording. We developed a method of acute identification within the live, ex vivo retina. Using it, we found that ipRGCs of the macaque monkey are highly specialized to encode irradiance (the overall intensity of illumination) by blurring spatial, temporal, and chromatic features of the visual scene. We describe mechanisms at the molecular, cellular, and population scales that support irradiance encoding across orders-of-magnitude changes in light intensity. These mechanisms are conserved quantitatively across the ~70 million years of evolution that separate macaques from mice.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Phototherapy plays a significant role in regulating emotional behavior and can have strong and rapid effects on mood and alertness.
“Phototherapy plays a significant role in regulating emotional behavior 399 and can have strong and rapid effects on mood and alertness. 400 – 402”
From Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment (2024) · cites this paper as [401]
The Abstract says light regulates mood and behavior, and the Discussion notes that artificial lighting is used for therapy in mood disorders. The paper studies light responses in retinal neurons; it does not establish that phototherapy has strong, rapid effects on mood or alertness. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Yarbus, A. L. (1967) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-5379-7 · Cited by 3,304 · see citing works
The analysis of visual motion: a comparison of neuronal and psychophysical performance
Britten, K., Shadlen, M., Newsome, W., & Movshon, J. (1992) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.12-12-04745.1992 · Cited by 1,958 · see citing works
Dacey, D. M., Liao, H.-W., Peterson, B. B., Robinson, F. R., Smith, V. C., Pokorny, J., Yau, K.-W., & Gamlin, P. D. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03387 · Cited by 1,333 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., et al. (2014) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2013.10.004 · Cited by 1,278 · see citing works
Self-citationIn search of the visual pigment template
GOVARDOVSKII, V. I., Fyhrquist, N., Reuter, T., KUZMIN, D. G., & Donner, K. (2000) · Visual Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/s0952523800174036 · Cited by 1,061 · see citing works
Melanopsin cells are the principal conduits for rod–cone input to non-image-forming vision
Güler, A. D., Ecker, J. L., Lall, G. S., Haq, S., Altimus, C. M., Liao, H., Barnard, A. R., Cahill, H. B., Badea, T. C., Zhao, H., et al. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06829 · Cited by 872 · see citing works
Ecker, J. L., Dumitrescu, O. N., Wong, K. Y., Alam, N. M., Chen, S., LeGates, T. A., Renna, J. M., Prusky, G. T., Berson, D. M., & Hattar, S. S. (2010) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.05.023 · Cited by 669 · see citing works
Human and macaque pupil responses driven by melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells
Gamlin, P. D. R., McDougal, D. H., Pokorny, J., Smith, V. C., Yau, K.-W., & Dacey, D. M. (2007) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2006.12.015 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
Self-citationSterling, P., & Laughlin, S. (2015) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262028707.001.0001 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells
Do, M. T. H., & Yau, K. (2010) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00013.2010 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Self-citationMolecular Classification and Comparative Taxonomics of Foveal and Peripheral Cells in Primate Retina
Peng, Y., Shekhar, K., Yan, W., Herrmann, D., Sappington, A., Bryman, G. S., van Zyl, T. A., Do, M. T. H., Regev, A., & Sanes, J. R. (2019) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.01.004 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Self-citationAbsorption spectra of human cone pigments
Merbs, S. L., & Nathans, J. (1992) · Nature · doi:10.1038/356433a0 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Melanopsin and the Intrinsically Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells: Biophysics to Behavior
Do, M. T. H. (2019) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.07.016 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Self-citationPhoton capture and signalling by melanopsin retinal ganglion cells
Do, M. T. H., Kang, S. H., Xue, T., Zhong, H., Liao, H., Bergles, D. E., & Yau, K. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07682 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Self-citationHatori, M., Le, H. D., Vollmers, C., Keding, S. R., Tanaka, N., Schmedt, C., Jegla, T. J., & Panda, S. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002451 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Koyanagi, M., Kubokawa, K., Tsukamoto, H., Shichida, Y., & Terakita, A. (2005) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.04.063 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
The Challenges Natural Images Pose for Visual Adaptation
Rieke, F. M., & Rudd, M. E. (2009) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.11.028 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Beyond Poisson: Increased Spike-Time Regularity across Primate Parietal Cortex
Maimon, G., & Assad, J. A. (2009) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.03.021 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Zylberberg, J., & Strowbridge, B. W. (2017) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-070815-014006 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Daily Electrical Silencing in the Mammalian Circadian Clock
Belle, M. D. C., Diekman, C. O., Forger, D. B., & Piggins, H. D. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1169657 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Melanopsin Bistability: A Fly's Eye Technology in the Human Retina
Mure, L. S., Cornut, P., Rieux, C., Drouyer, E., Denis, P., Gronfier, C., & Cooper, H. M. (2009) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005991 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Liao, H., Ren, X., Peterson, B. B., MARSHAK, D. W., Yau, K., Gamlin, P. D., & Dacey, D. M. (2016) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.23995 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationWhy are rods more sensitive than cones?
Ingram, N. T., Sampath, A. P., & Fain, G. (2016) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp272556 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Transduction in invertebrate photoreceptors: role of pigment bistability.
Hillman, P., Hochstein, S., & Minke, B. (1983) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.1983.63.2.668 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Melanopsin Tristability for Sustained and Broadband Phototransduction
Emanuel, A. J., & Do, M. T. H. (2015) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.011 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citationPhotochemical Properties of Mammalian Melanopsin
Matsuyama, T., Yamashita, T., Imamoto, Y., & Shichida, Y. (2012) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/bi3004999 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
The light‐activated signaling pathway in SCN‐projecting rat retinal ganglion cells
Warren, E., Allen, C. N., Brown, R. L., & Robinson, D. W. (2006) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04777.x · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Pires, S. S., Hughes, S., Turton, M., Melyan, Z., Peirson, S. N., Zheng, L., Kosmaoglou, M., Bellingham, J., Cheetham, M. E., Lucas, R. J., et al. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2036-09.2009 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
A Population Representation of Absolute Light Intensity in the Mammalian Retina
Milner, E. S., & Do, M. T. H. (2017) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.09.005 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationOrigin and effect of phototransduction noise in primate cone photoreceptors
Angueyra, J. M., & Rieke, F. (2013) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3534 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Adaptation to steady light by intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells
Do, M. T. H., & Yau, K. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1304039110 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationLight responses of primate and other mammalian cones
Cao, L.-H., Luo, D.-G., & Yau, K. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1400268111 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Biophysical Variation within the M1 Type of Ganglion Cell Photoreceptor
Emanuel, A. J., Kapur, K., & Do, M. T. H. (2017) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2017.09.095 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationWienbar, S. R., & Schwartz, G. W. (2022) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.04.012 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Responses to Spatial Contrast in the Mouse Suprachiasmatic Nuclei
Mouland, J. W., Stinchcombe, A. R., Forger, D. B., Brown, T. M., & Lucas, R. J. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.039 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Disotell, T. R., & Tosi, A. J. (2007) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2007-8-9-226 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Ostrin, L. A., Strang, C. E., Chang, K. Q., Jnawali, A., Hung, L., Arumugam, B., Frishman, L. J., Smith, E. L., & Gamlin, P. D. (2018) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.01000 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationFocus on Molecules: Melanopsin
Davies, W. I. L., Foster, F., & Hankins, M. W. (2010) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2010.07.020 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Optimized Signal Flow through Photoreceptors Supports the High-Acuity Vision of Primates
Bryman, G. S., Liu, A., & Do, M. T. H. (2020) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2020.07.035 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- [10]Yarbus AL (Plenum Press, New York, N.Y., 1967).
- [24]Sterling P, Laughlin S (MIT Press, United States of America, 2015).
- [26]Milner ESM, Do MTH, Cell 171, 11 (2017).
- [35]Peng YR, Cell 176, 15 (2019).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment
Cui, L., Li, S., Wang, S., Wu, X., Liu, Y., Yu, W., Wang, Y., Tang, Y., Xia, M., & Li, B. (2024) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-024-01738-y · Cited by 1,061 · see citing works
Regulation of pupil size in natural vision across the human lifespan
Lazar, R., Degen, J., Fiechter, A.-S., Monticelli, A., & Spitschan, M. (2024) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.191613 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Feigl, B., Lewis, S. J. G., Burr, L. D., Schweitzer, D. R., Gnyawali, S., Vagenas, D., Carter, D. D., & Zele, A. J. (2024) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102474 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
McDowell, R. J., Didikoğlu, A., Woelders, T., Gatt, M. J., Moffatt, F., Notash, S., Hut, R. A., Brown, T. M., & Lucas, R. J. (2024) · BMC Biology · doi:10.1186/s12915-024-02038-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
What can the eye see with melanopsin?
Nugent, T. W., & Zele, A. J. (2024) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2411151121 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
A pupillary contrast response in mice and humans: Neural mechanisms and visual functions
Fitzpatrick, M. J., Krizan, J., Hsiang, J.-C., Shen, N., & Kerschensteiner, D. (2024) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2024.04.012 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Mapping the Retina onto the BrainPreprint
Kerschensteiner, D., & Feller, M. B. (2023) · Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology · doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a041512 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Barrionuevo, P. A., Sandoval, M. L., & Fanchini, J. M. (2024) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2024.108378 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Martin, P. R. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adf9350 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Behavior-Specific Computations in the Vertebrate Retina
Riccitelli, S., Vlasits, A. L., & Franke, K. (2025) · Annual Review of Vision Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-102122-104700 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The multistable melanopsins of mammals
Emanuel, A. J., & Do, M. T. H. (2023) · Frontiers in Ophthalmology · doi:10.3389/fopht.2023.1174255 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationipRGC properties prevent light from shifting the SCN clock during daytime
Komal, R., Beier, C., Nath, A., Grimes, W. N., Wang, H. M., Berry, M. H., Gao, C., Yang, S. Y., Thurman, M., Ostermeyer, G. P., et al. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09894-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Berry, M. H., Leffler, J., Allen, C. N., & Sivyer, B. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.08.26.554902 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Effects of light exposure on vagally-mediated heart rate variability: A systematic review
Martins, V., Allen, M. S., Borges, U., Laterza, P., Jackovič, M., Mosley, E., Javelle, F., & Laborde, S. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106241 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Melanopsin-mediated image statistics from natural and human-made environments
Barrionuevo, P. A., & Díaz‐Barrancas, F. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-15981-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Spectral Tuning in Mammalian Melanopsins
McDowell, R. J., Gatt, M. J., Notash, S., & Lucas, R. J. (2025) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msaf158 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Receptive fields of retinal neurons: New themes and variations
Vlasits, A. L. (2025) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2025.108654 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Orlowska‐Feuer, P., Baño‐Otálora, B., Rodgers, J., Martial, F. P., Storchi, R., & Lucas, R. J. (2023) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp285000 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Nugent, T. W., Feigl, B., Banerjee, A., & Zele, A. J. (2026) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1862-25.2026 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Diversity and Feature Selectivity of Primate Retinal Ganglion Cells
Bernstein, N. G., & Puthussery, T. (2026) · Annual Review of Vision Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-vision-101322-112018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ding, C., Ndiaye, P. S., Campbell, S. R., Fry, M. Y., Gong, J., Wienbar, S. R., Gibbs, W. S., Morquette, P., Chao, L. H., Do, M. T. H., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.09.30.615936 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationScarel, G., Kokhan, O., & Wheeler, V. D. (2024) · Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B Nanotechnology and Microelectronics Materials Processing Measurement and Phenomena · doi:10.1116/6.0003139
Phototransduction: Circadian Photoreception
Provencio, I. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13820-1.00129-8
Two-photon activation, deactivation, and coherent control of melanopsin in live cellsPreprint
Renteria, C. A., Kahng, J., Tibble, B. E., Iyer, R. R., Shi, J., AlGrain, H. A., Chaney, E. J., Aksamitiene, E., Liu, Y.-Z., Robinson, P. R., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.03.26.645437
Jseun: Joint Semantic-Instance Segmentation of Point Cloud Via Neighbor Features for Indoor ScenesPreprint
Chen, H., Chen, M., Jiang, J., Menhas, M. I., & Ahmad, B. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5231155
Melanopsin-mediated signals in natural and human-made environmentsPreprint
Barrionuevo, P. A., & Díaz‐Barrancas, F. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.06.07.658429
Feature Selectivity for Circadian Regulation within Melanopsin PhotoreceptorsPreprint
Milner, E. S., Blume, H. A., Mousavi, S. N., Brown, M. C., Caval-Holme, F. S., Nguyen‐Minh, V. T., Nagai, T., & Do, M. T. H. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2025.12.30.695276
Self-citationMinimal Mimics and Maps of Natural Light for Mammals
Morquette, P., & Do, M. T. H. (2026) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0180-26.2026 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationBradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0004
Developmental Plasticity, Ecology and Evolution
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0007
Origin and Integration of Biological Processes
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0003
Implications and Anticipations
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0008
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.001.0001
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.005.0001
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.002.0005
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.002.0006
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0001
Albeck, J. G. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.002.0004
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0005
Population-based Threshold Models
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0002
Bradford, K. J. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197846032.003.0006
Inducing Daytime Circadian Phase Shifts Using Chemogenetic and Spectral Approaches
Bass, S., Sun, M. L., Gold, E., Wang, H., Hattar, S. S., & Komal, R. (2026) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/71594
A standard model for the vertebrate retina
Meister, M. (2026) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2026.108895 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells: Context-Dependent resilience and vulnerability
Cella, A., & Mure, L. S. (2026) · Neurobiology of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms · doi:10.1016/j.nbscr.2026.100153
- Authors
- Liu, A., Milner, E. S., Peng, Y.-R., Blume, H. A., Brown, M. C., Bryman, G. S., Emanuel, A. J., Morquette, P., Viet, N.-M., Sanes, J. R., Gamlin, P. D., & Do, M. T. H.
- Affiliations
- Boston Children's Hospital (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- F. M. Kirby Neurobiology Center and Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School. Boston, MA 02115, USA.
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Corresponding author
- Liu, Andreas
- Milner, Elliott S.
- Emanuel, Alan J.
- Do, Michael Tri H.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2023-01-27
- Volume
- 379
- Issue
- 6630
- Pages
- 376-381
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC10445534
- OpenAlex
- W4318141653
- Cited by
- 44
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 5
- FWCI
- 6.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- BrightFocus Foundation (R01EY034089, R01EY023648, M2014055)
- Harvard University
- Broad Institute
- National Institutes of Health (1s10od026752-01)
- Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center (P30EY012196)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY030628, F31EY025466, R21EY032731, R21EY028633, R21EY025840, R01EY023648, P30EY003039, R01EY034089, P30EY012196, R01EY025555)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P50HD105351)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Retinal Development and Disorders
- Keywords
- intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, melanopsin, ambient light, macaque retina, light intensity, chromatic adaptation, evolutionary conservation, non-image-forming vision
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Biological Evolution, Light, Lighting, Macaca, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Mice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
