Soluble Factors Released by Toxoplasma gondii-Infected Astrocytes Down-Modulate Nitric Oxide Production by Gamma Interferon-Activated Microglia and Prevent Neuronal Degeneration
Open accessAbstract
The maintenance of a benign chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection is mainly dependent on the persistent presence of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) in the central nervous system (CNS). However, IFN-γ-activated microglia are paradoxically involved in parasitism control and in tissue damage during a broad range of CNS pathologies. In this way, nitric oxide (NO), the main toxic metabolite produced by IFN-γ-activated microglia, may cause neuronal injury during T. gondii infection. Despite the potential NO toxicity, neurodegeneration is not a common finding during chronic T. gondii infection. In this work, we describe a significant down-modulation of NO production by IFN-γ-activated microglia in the presence of conditioned medium of T. gondii-infected astrocytes (CMi). The inhibition of NO production was paralleled with recovery of neurite outgrowth when neurons were cocultured with IFN-γ-activated microglia in the presence of CMi. Moreover, the modulation of NO secretion and the neuroprotective effect were shown to be dependent on prostaglandin E 2(PGE 2) production by T. gondii-infected astrocytes and autocrine secretion of interleukin-10 (IL-10) by microglia. These events were partially eliminated when infected astrocytes were treated with aspirin and cocultures were treated with anti-IL-10 neutralizing antibodies and RP-8-Br cyclic AMP (cAMP), a protein kinase A inhibitor. Further, the modulatory effects of CMi were mimicked by the presence of exogenous PGE 2 and by forskolin, an adenylate cyclase activator. Altogether, these data point to a T. gondii-triggered regulatory mechanism involving PGE 2 secretion by astrocytes and cAMP-dependent IL-10 secretion by microglia. This may reduce host tissue inflammation, thus avoiding neuron damage during an established Th1 protective immune response.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
•NO inhibits Toxoplasma infectivity and prevents disease progression to other systems, especially the central nervous system.
“as well as inhibiting Toxoplasma infectivity and preventing disease progression to other systems, especially the central nervous system CNS [139].”
From The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity (2022) · cites this paper as [139]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans
Tenter, A. M., Heckeroth, A. R., & Weiss, L. M. (2000) · International Journal for Parasitology · doi:10.1016/s0020-7519(00)00124-7 · Cited by 3,716 · see citing works
Ding, A. H., Nathan, C., & Stuehr, D. J. (1988) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.141.7.2407 · Cited by 2,840 · see citing works
Halliwell, B. (2001) · Drugs & Aging · doi:10.2165/00002512-200118090-00004 · Cited by 1,502 · see citing works
Interferon-γ: the Major Mediator of Resistance Against Toxoplasma gondii
Suzuki, Y., Orellana, M. A., Schreiber, R. D., & Remington, J. S. (1988) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3128869 · Cited by 1,173 · see citing works
Activated microglia mediate neuronal cell injury via a nitric oxide mechanism
Chao, C. C., Hu, S., Molitor, T. W., Shaskan, E. G., & Peterson, P. K. (1992) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.149.8.2736 · Cited by 1,137 · see citing works
Metabolic coupling between glia and neurons
Tsacopoulos, M., & Magistretti, P. (1996) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.16-03-00877.1996 · Cited by 1,006 · see citing works
Gazzinelli, R. T., Wysocka, M., Hieny, S. E., Scharton‐Kersten, T., Cheever, A. W., Kühn, R., Müller, W., Trinchieri, G., & Sher, A. (1996) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.157.2.798 · Cited by 928 · see citing works
Tumor necrosis factor identified in multiple sclerosis brain.
Hofman, F. M., Hinton, D. R., Johnson, K. P., & Merrill, J. E. (1989) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.170.2.607 · Cited by 801 · see citing works
Rogers, J., Luber-Narod, J., Styren, S. D., & Civin, W. H. (1988) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/s0197-4580(88)80079-4 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
IL-10 inhibits parasite killing and nitrogen oxide production by IFN-gamma-activated macrophages
Gazzinelli, R. T., Oswald, I. P., James, S. L., & Sher, A. (1992) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.148.6.1792 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Gazzinelli, R. T., Hakim, F. T., Hieny, S. E., Shearer, G. M., & Sher, A. (1991) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.146.1.286 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
Rate of cell death in parkinsonism indicates active neuropathological process
McGeer, P. L., Itagaki, S., Akiyama, H., & McGeer, E. G. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410240415 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
The adenylate cyclase-cAMP-protein kinase A pathway and regulation of the immune response
Kammer, G. M. (1988) · Immunology Today · doi:10.1016/0167-5699(88)91220-0 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
A new view of prostaglandin E regulation of the immune response
Phipps, R. P., Stein, S. H., & Roper, R. L. (1991) · Immunology Today · doi:10.1016/0167-5699(91)90064-z · Cited by 528 · see citing works
Scharton‐Kersten, T., Yap, G. S., Magram, J., & Sher, A. (1997) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.185.7.1261 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Carlson, N. G., Wieggel, W. A., Chen, J., Bacchi, A., Rogers, S. W., & Gahring, L. C. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Bohne, W., Heesemann, J., & Groß, U. (1994) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.62.5.1761-1767.1994 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Merrill, J. E. (1992) · Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1159/000111642 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Carlson, N. G., Wieggel, W. A., Chen, J., Bacchi, A., Rogers, S. W., & Gahring, L. C. (1999) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.163.7.3963 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
IL-12 production by central nervous system microglia is inhibited by astrocytes
Aloisi, F., Penna, G., Cerase, J., Iglesias, B. M., & Adorini, L. (1997) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.159.4.1604 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Cellular signaling roles of TGFβ, TNFα and βAPP in brain injury responses and Alzheimer's disease
Mattson, M. P., Barger, S. W., Furukawa, K., Bruce‐Keller, A. J., Wyss‐Coray, T., Mark, R. J., & Mucke, L. (1997) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(96)00014-8 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Yap, G. S., & Sher, A. (1999) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.189.7.1083 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
A dichotomous role for nitric oxide during acute Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice
Khan, I. A., Schwartzman, J. D., Matsuura, T., & Kasper, L. H. (1997) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.94.25.13955 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Interleukin‐10 modulates neuronal threshold of vulnerability to ischaemic damage
Grilli, M., Barbieri, I., Basudev, H., et al. (2000) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00090.x · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Bachis, A., Colangelo, A. M., Vicini, S., Doe, P. P., Bernardi, M. A. D., Brooker, G., & Mocchetti, I. (2001) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.21-09-03104.2001 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Glia, cytokines, and neurotoxicity.
Chao, C. C., Hu, S., & Peterson, P. K. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Toxoplasmosis in the non-AIDS immunocompromised host.
Israelski, D. M., & Remington, J. S. (1993) · PubMed · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Human microglial cell defense against Toxoplasma gondii. The role of cytokines.
Chao, C., Gekker, G., Hu, S., & Peterson, P. K. (1994) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.152.3.1246 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Caggiano, A. O., & Kraig, R. P. (1999) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1999.0720565.x · Cited by 159 · see citing works
The Role of Microglia and Astrocytes in Cns Immune Surveillance and Immunopathology
Aloisi, F. (1999) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4685-6_10 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Neuroprotective Effects of Interleukin-10 Following Excitotoxic Spinal Cord Injury
Brewer, K. L., Bethea, J. R., & Yezierski, R. P. (1999) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1006/exnr.1999.7173 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Cytokines in CNS disorders: neurotoxicity versus neuroprotection
Stoll, G., Jander, S., & Schroeter, M. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-6781-6_11 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Gamma Interferon-Induced Inhibition ofToxoplasma gondiiin Astrocytes Is Mediated by IGTP
Halonen, S. K., Taylor, G. A., & Weiss, L. M. (2001) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.69.9.5573-5576.2001 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Levi, G., Minghetti, L., & Aloisi, F. (1998) · Biochimie · doi:10.1016/s0300-9084(00)88886-0 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Regulation of Microglial Development: A Novel Role for Thyroid Hormone
Lima, F. R. S., Gervais, A., Colin, C., Izembart, M., Moura‐Neto, V., & Mallat, M. (2001) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.21-06-02028.2001 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationLüder, C. G. K., Lang, T., Beuerle, B., et al. (1998) · Clinical & Experimental Immunology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2249.1998.00594.x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
The potential role of nitric oxide in multiple sclerosis
Giovannoni, G., Heales, S., Land, J. M., & Thompson, E. J. (1998) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1177/135245859800400323 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Cytokine responses induced by Toxoplasma gondii in astrocytes and microglial cells
Fischer, H., Nitzgen, B., Reichmann, G., & Hadding, U. (1997) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.1830270633 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Akiyama, H., Mori, H., Saido, T., Kondo, H., Ikeda, K., & McGeer, P. (1999) · Glia · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-1136(19990215)25:4 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Schlüter, D., Kaefer, N., Hof, H., et al. (1997) · PubMed · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Schlüter, D., Deckert‐Schlüter, M., Lorenz, E., Meyer, T., Röllinghoff, M., & Bogdan, C. (1999) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.162.6.3512 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Vane, J. R. (2002) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1071702 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Zhang, J., & Rivest, S. (2001) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00080.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
McMillian, M. K., Kong, L. Y., Sawin, S., et al. (1995) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.1995.2503 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Kang, H., & Suzuki, Y. (2001) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.69.5.2920-2927.2001 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Function of microglia in organotypic slice cultures
Czapiga, M., & Colton, C. A. (1999) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4547(19990615)56:6 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Chuenkova, M. V., & Pereira, M. E. A. (2000) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.11.4.1487 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
L-deprenyl plus l-phenylalanine in the treatment of depression
Birkmayer, W., Riederer, P. F., Linauer, W., & Knoll, J. E. (1984) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/bf01249880 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Minghetti, L., Polazzi, E., Nicolini, A., & Levi, G. (1998) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/s0165-5728(97)00185-9 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Hailer, N. P., Wirjatijasa, F., Roser, N., Hischebeth, G. T. R., Korf, H., & Dehghani, F. (2001) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01649.x · Cited by 71 · see citing works
DiProspero, N. A., Meiners, S. A., & Geller, H. M. (1997) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1006/exnr.1997.6700 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Théry, C., Dobbertin, A., & Mallat, M. (1994) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.440110411 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Li, G., Harton, J. A., Zhu, X., & Ting, J. P. ‐. (2001) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.21.14.4626-4635.2001 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Trentin, A. G., Alvarez‐Silva, M., & Neto, V. M. (2001) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.2001.281.5.e1088 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Suzuki, Y., Kang, H., Parmley, S. F., et al. (2000) · Microbes and Infection · doi:10.1016/s1286-4579(00)00318-x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Reactive microglia in dysmyelination and demyelination
Zhang, S., Goetz, B. D., Carré, J., & Duncan, I. D. (2001) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.1045 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Fretland, D. J. (1992) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/0952-3278(92)90080-3 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Intracerebral regulation of immune responses
Aloisi, F., Ambrosini, E., Cabezas, S. C., Magliozzi, R., & Serafini, B. (2001) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.3109/07853890108995960 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The T. cruzi trans-sialidase induces PC12 cell differentiation via MAPK/ERK pathway
Chuenkova, M. V., & Pereira, M. E. A. (2001) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200112040-00022 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Nitric Oxide Mediates the Toxoplasmastatic Activity of Murine Microglial Cellsin vitro
Jun, C., Kim, S. H., Soh, C. T., Kang, S. S., & Chung, H. T. (1993) · Immunological Investigations · doi:10.3109/08820139309084178 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Burke, J. M., Roberts, C. W., Hunter, C. A., et al. (1994) · Parasite Immunology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-3024.1994.tb00353.x · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Channon, J. Y., & Kasper, L. H. (1996) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.64.4.1181-1189.1996 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Interleukin‐10 does not contribute to the pathogenesis of a virulent strain of Toxoplasma gondii
Wille, U., Villegas, E. N., Striepen, B., Roos, D. S., & Hunter, C. A. (2001) · Parasite Immunology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-3024.2001.00389.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Hewett, S. J. (1999) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/s0165-5728(98)00240-9 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Villegas, E. N., Wille, U., Craig, L. E., Linsley, P. S., Rennick, D. M., Peach, R., & Hunter, C. A. (2000) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.68.5.2837-2844.2000 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Genes, Cells and Cytokines in Resistance against Development of Toxoplasmic Encephalitis
Suzuki, Y. (1999) · Immunobiology · doi:10.1016/s0171-2985(99)80066-7 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Jamra, L. M. F., & Vieira, M. D. P. L. (1991) · Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo · doi:10.1590/s0036-46651991000600003 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Silva, N. M., Tafuri, W. L., Alvarez-Leite, J. I., et al. (2002) · Microbes and Infection · doi:10.1016/s1286-4579(02)01537-x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Minghetti, L., Nicolini, A., Polazzi, E., Créminon, C., Maclouf, J., & Levi, G. (1997) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1810-9_37 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Delemarre, F. G. A., Stevenhagen, A., Kroon, F. P., et al. (1995) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/00002030-199505000-00005 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Delemarre, F. G. A., Stevenhagen, A., Kroon, F. P., et al. (1995) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/00002030-199509050-00005 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Freund, Y. R., Zaveri, N. T., & Javitz, H. S. (2001) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.69.2.765-772.2001 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Prostaglandin E1 protects cultured spinal neurons against the effects of nitric oxide toxicity
Kikuchi, S., Shinpo, K., Niino, M., et al. (2002) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0028-3908(02)00020-5 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Urbano, F. J., Sierra, F., Colombo, J. A., Velasco, J. M., & Bu�o, W. (1997) · Glia · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-1136(199702)19:2 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bolaños, J. P., Garcı́a-Nogales, P., Vega‐Agapito, V., Delgado‐Esteban, M., Cidad, P., & Almeida, Á. (2001) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(01)32094-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Parchi, P., Giese, A., Capellari, S., Brown, P., Schulz-Schaeffer, W., Windl, O., Zerr, I., Budka, H., Kopp, N., Piccardo, P., et al. (1999) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/1531-8249(199908)46:2
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- [4]Aloisi, F., R. De Simone, S. Columba-Cabezas, and G. Levi. 1999. Opposite effects of interferon-gamma and prostaglandin E2 on tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-10 production in microglia: a regulatory loop controlling microglia pro- and anti-inflammatory activities. J. Neurosci. Res. 56:571-580. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- [13]Chao, C. C., G. Gekker, S. Hu, and P. K. Peterson. 1994. Human microglial cell defence against Toxoplasma gondii. J. Immunol. 152:1246-1252. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- [14]Chao, C. C., S. Hu, and P. K. Peterson. 1995. Cytokines and neurotoxicity. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 9:189-205. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- [31]Helliwell, B. 2001. Role of free radicals in the neurodegenerative diseases. Drugs Aging 18:685-716. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- [50]Minghetti, L., A. Nicolini, E. Polazzi, C. Creminon, J. Maclouf, and G. Levi. 1997. Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in activated rat microglia cultures is downregulated by exogenous prostaglandin E2 and by cyclooxygenase inhibitors. Glia 19:152-160. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- [52]Penkowa, M., T. Moos, J. Carrasco, H. Hadberg, A. Molinero, H. Bluethmann, and J. Hidalgo. 1999. Strongly compromised inflammatory response to brain injury in interleukin-6-deficient mice. Glia 25:343-357. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- [55]Rostasy, K., L. Monti, C. Yiannoutsos, M. Kneissl, J. Bell, T. L. Kemper, J. C. Hedreen, and B. A. Navia. 1999. Human immunodeficiency virus infection, inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, and microglial activation: pathogenic relationship to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome dementia complex. Ann. Neurol. 46:207-216. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity
Andrés, C., Pérez de la Lastra, J., Juan, C., Plou, F., & Pérez-Lebeña, E. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10101735 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
- Authors
- Rozenfeld, C., Martinez, R., Figueiredo, R. T., Bozza, M. T., Lima, F. R. S., Pires, A. L., Silva, P. M., Bonomo, A., Lannes-Vieira, J., De Souza, W., & Moura-Neto, V.
- Affiliations
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (BR)
- Departamento de Anatomia, ICB
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (BR)
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (BR)
- Departamento de Farmacologia e FarmacodinÂmica, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Câncer - INCA (BR)
- Departamento de Imunologia
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho
- Venue
- Infection and Immunity
- Publisher
- American Society for Microbiology
- Published
- 2003-04
- Volume
- 71
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 2047-2057
- ISSN
- 0019-9567 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-5522
- PMC
- PMC152043
- OpenAlex
- W2124890584
- Cited by
- 82
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 3.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Infection and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Arca - Repositório Institucional da Fiocruz (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
- Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
- Institut National Du Cancer
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Toxoplasma gondii Research Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotoxicology and immune responses
- Keywords
- Toxoplasma gondii, chronic toxoplasmosis, astrocytes, microglia, nitric oxide, interferon-gamma, prostaglandin E2, IL-10, neuroprotection, neurodegeneration, neurite outgrowth, cAMP signaling, protein kinase A, Th1 response, neuroinflammation, conditioned medium
- MeSH terms
- Cyclic AMP, Animals, Astrocytes, Cells, Cultured, Interferon-gamma, Mice, Inbred BALB C, Neurons, Nitric Oxide, Solubility, Toxoplasma, Dinoprostone, Down-Regulation, Interleukin-10, Culture Media, Conditioned, Microglia, Coculture Techniques, Mice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
