The grammar of the pangenome: terms, concepts, methods, and emerging patterns—a general framework for comparative genomics and genome biology
Abstract
SUMMARY: The concept of the pangenome has emerged as the approach of choice for targeted comparative genomics across groups of organisms, from strain or population levels within a species to broader taxonomic or phenotypic categories. Pangenome analyses employ diverse procedures that inevitably introduce reproducibility challenges. Nevertheless, they have already yielded important insights into the structure, function, and evolution of archaeal, bacterial, and eukaryotic genomes across space, time, biogeography, and phylogeny. There is a wide range of applications from vaccine design to synthetic biology that are expected to yield additional technological and biomedical tools for genome biology and biotechnology. We review here the basic concepts underpinning pangenome research, including the estimation of gene and protein family numbers, the modeling of open and closed pangenomes, and key definitions relevant to reporting guidelines. We list and compare computational platforms, algorithms, and data structures, along with their salient features. We present key findings from 249 taxa covering 17,858 genome sequences, subjected to such analyses, and discuss major patterns observed, such as novel families per genome and pangenome size estimates for this validated data set. We propose revised criteria for pangenomes, standard operating procedures, and further targets to enhance the reproducibility of analysis and expand opportunities for experimental and computational comparative genomics. This framework attempts to clarify current methodologies and chart a path forward for integrating pangenome analyses.
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Still being checked.
- Authors
- Chasapi, A., Michailidis, A., Schriml, L. M., Donati, C., Kyrpides, N. C., & Ouzounis, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Centre for Research and Technology Hellas (GR)
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- Fondazione Edmund Mach (IT)
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ouzounis, Christos A.
- Venue
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
- Publisher
- American Society for Microbiology
- Published
- 2026-10-05
- Pages
- e0040325-e0040325
- ISSN
- 1092-2172 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-5557
- OpenAlex
- W7220401795
- Cited by
- 0
- References
- 207
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (Fondazione Edmund Mach) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Phylogenetic Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Chromosomal and Genetic Variations
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Bacterial Genetics and Biotechnology
- Keywords
- pan-genome, comparative genomics, genome biology, reproducibility, reporting guidelines, genome evolution, archaeal genomes, bacterial genomes, eukaryotic genomes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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