Penfield's homunculus: a note on cerebral cartography
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Schott’s historical essay examines how Penfield’s homunculus illustrations, beginning in 1937, became highly influential but remained scientifically ambiguous and mixed observation with artistic convention. It traces their evolution and argues they gave an unjustified impression of single, established cortical maps.
Key findings
- The first homunculus, published by Penfield and Boldrey in 1937 and drawn by Mrs H P Cantlie, combined motor and sensory features symmetrically; its sizing rationale was unclear, especially the undefined terms “perpendicular” and “vertical,” and the drawing did not distinguish unilateral from bilateral effects.
- The 1950 Penfield and Rasmussen version separated motor and sensory representations, placed the figure along the cortical surface, and came closer to a map tied to surgically identified brain areas; by 1954, Penfield and Jasper presented multiple homunculi for Rolandic, secondary sensory, and supplementary motor regions while explicitly calling them memory aids or cartoons rather than topographically accurate.
- Later homunculi in the thalamus and elsewhere, including those associated with Hassler et al. and Creutzfeldt, are described as increasingly artistic devices with doubtful scientific value; animal figurines such as the simiusculus followed the human precedent.
- Schott argues the homunculus misleadingly suggests a single, settled cortical representation, whereas evidence from animal work indicates multiple somatosensory areas, plasticity, and possible differences between maps of evoked potentials and maps of perceived sensations.
Methods
- Historical and critical commentary rather than an empirical study; no new experiments or primary data are reported.
- The analysis draws on published works and illustrations by Penfield and collaborators from 1937, 1950, and 1954, along with related historical and experimental literature.
- The main approach is interpretive: comparing visual conventions, terminology, cartographic problems, and the scientific claims attached to the homunculus.
Limitations
- The paper states no formal limitations.
- Evident from the text: as an editorial-style essay, it offers no systematic review, no new data, and relies on selected historical sources and reproductions.
- Evident from the text: its central critique is interpretive, and the author acknowledges ongoing ambiguity about what the homunculus was intended to represent.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 17 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingnone given
The first homunculus was not drawn in relation to the hemispheres at all.
“This compares with the first homunculus, which was not drawn in relation to the hemispheres at all.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
There are formidable cartographic difficulties in using a device such as a homunculus as a type of map.
“there are formidable cartographic diffi- culties in using a device such as an homunculus as a type of map.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Patients with damage affecting somatosensory systems show evidence of marked somatotopic reorganisation at thalamic level.
“patients with damage affecting somatosensory systems show evidence of marked somatotopic reorganisation at thalamic level.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Penfield's data were obtained using comparatively large-diameter stimulating electrodes in patients with brain disease.
“Penfield's data obtained using comparatively large-diameter stimulating electrodes in patients with brain disease”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Hassler R, Mundinger F, Riechert T. Stereotaxis in Parkinson syndrome. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1979: (front cover). source
- Premisecitation
Penfield and Jasper were the first to place a homunculus in the thalamus.
“Penfield and Jasper3 were the first to place a homunculus in this subcortical region”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Penfield W, Rasmussen T. The cerebral corltex of man. New York: Macmillan, 1950:44, 56, 214-15.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationnone given
Maps of cortical potentials evoked peripherally are not identical to maps of perceived sensations induced by direct cortical stimulation.
“maps of cortical potentials evoked peripherally are not identical to maps of perceived sensa- tions induced by direct cortical stimulation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Penfield and Boldrey (1937) described the effects of electrical stimulation of the human cerebral cortex, using the procedures as exploratory manoeuvres to delineate the appropriate area for subsequent surgical intervention.
“They described their work on the effects of stimulation of the cerebral cortex in man, the procedures being carried out as exploratory manoeuvres to delineate the appropriate area for subsequent surgical intervention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Hassler R, Mundinger F, Riechert T. Stereotaxis in Parkinson syndrome. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1979: (front cover). source
- Premisecitation
Penfield and Boldrey's 1937 paper was the first time pictorial means of illustrating cortical representation had been attempted.
“It was the first time pictorial means of illustrating cortical representation had been attempted; it was thus an entire- ly new concept”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Hassler R, Mundinger F, Riechert T. Stereotaxis in Parkinson syndrome. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1979: (front cover). source
- Interpretationreasoning
The homunculus is outlined by an imaginary 'envelope' which does not exist.
“The homunculus, however, is outlined by an imaginary 'envelope' which does not exist.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
From experiments using electrical stimulation techniques in monkeys, it seems probable that the concept of simple somatotopic organisation is inadequate.
“From experi- ments using electrical stimulation techniques in monkeys, however, it seems probable that the concept of simple somatotopic organisation is inadequate.8”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Dennett DC. Brainstornms. Philosophical essayNs on miind and psychology. Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press 1979:57-59.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
There are several examples of plasticity in humans.
“there are also several examples of plasticity in humans.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Pascual-Leone et at
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
In the 1954 homunculi, the precision intended in the earlier homunculi was almost completely lost.
“The precision intended in the earlier homunculi has been almost completely lost”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Different individuals, both normal and those with diseases of the nervous system, have very different cortical areas from which sensory and motor phenomena can be elicited.
“different individuals, both normal and those with diseases of the nervous sys- tem, have very different cortical areas from which sensory and motor phenomena can be elicited.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20
- May combine two claims. 18
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
FindingcitationThe 1950 homunculus was draped along the cortical surface and interhemispheric fissure, with motor and sensory representations separated, slightly modified and corrected.
“draped along the cortical surface and interhemispheric fissure.In this homunculus, however, the motor and sensory representations have been separat- ed, slightly modified and corrected”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningIn the first homunculus, responses were transposed to the same side of the brain, and it is not possible to distinguish unilateral from bilateral effects of cortical stimulation.
“responses have been transposed to the same side of the brain for the purposes of representation, and it is not possible from the illustra- tion to distinguish unilateral from bilateral effects of cor- tical stimulation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe first homunculus (1937) was symmetrical in shape and illustrated both motor and sensory features together.
“It was symmetrical in shape and illustrated both motor and sensory features together”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone givenPenfield's homunculus is shown with an outline which encompasses the area of cortical representation.
“Penfield's homunculus is shown with an outline which encompasses the area of cortical representation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe first homunculus appears to relate to length rather than width, but the parts illustrated are enlarged in both dimensions.
“Whilst the homunculus appears to relate to length rather than width, the parts illustrated are in fact enlarged in both dimensions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenAll animal representations are more figurative than accurate, contrasting with the extremely accurate mapping of localised evoked potentials illustrated diagrammatically rather than by means of figurines.
“All these animal representations are more figurative than accurate, contrasting with the extremely accurate mapping of localised evoked potentials illustrat- ed diagrammatically rather than by means of figurines.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe homunculus has taken over from its authors, and illustration has outstripped the scientific evidence available.
“It suggests that the homunculus has taken over from its authors, and illustration has out- stripped the scientific evidence available.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAt cortical level, plasticity of maps of outputs of the human motor system has been demonstrated after amputation, paraplegia and hemispherectomy, and changes in sensorimotor representation have been demonstrated in blind braille readers.
“At cortical level, plasticity of maps of outputs of the human motor system has been demonstrated after amputation, paraplegia and hemispherectomy, and changes in sensorimotor represen- tation have been demonstrated in blind braille readers”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pascual-Leone et at
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPenfield and Jasper (1954) illustrated three sets of homunculi: motor and sensory in relation to the Rolandic fissure, a purely sensory homunculus in the secondary sensory area near the Sylvian fissure, and a virtually only motor homunculus in the supplementary motor cortex.
“Penfield and Jasper now illustrated three sets of homun- culi (fig 3), the first set (motor and sensory) in relation to the Rolandic fissure, a second apparently purely sensory homunculus in the secondary sensory area near the Sylvian fissure, and a third homunculus (virtually only motor) in the supplementary motor cortex.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Penfield W, Rasmussen T. The cerebral corltex of man. New York: Macmillan, 1950:44, 56, 214-15.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPenfield and Boldrey confirmed the precise topography of cortical localisation and related stimulation of a discrete part of the brain with motor and sensory phenomena affecting a particular part of the body.
“They confirmed the precise topography of cortical localisation, and were able to relate stimulation of a discrete part of the brain with motor and sensory phenomena affecting a particular part of the body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Hassler R, Mundinger F, Riechert T. Stereotaxis in Parkinson syndrome. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1979: (front cover). source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPenfield was aware of individual variation and that the effects of cortical stimulation could change after surgery.
“Penfield was aware not only of this individual variation but also that the effects of cortical stimulation could change after surgery.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Hassler R, Mundinger F, Riechert T. Stereotaxis in Parkinson syndrome. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1979: (front cover). source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPenfield and Rasmussen (1950) made another attempt to illustrate cortical representation.
“Thirteen years later, in their monograph entitled The cerebral cortex of man, Penfield and Rasmussen made another attempt to illustrate cortical representation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Creutzfeldt OD. Cortex cerebri. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1983: 216.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese cartographic difficulties include two-dimensional representation of diverse, three-dimensional information both in the periphery and in the brain, the representation of multiple and sometimes overlapping images, and simultaneous representation of bilateral and unilateral data.
“These difficulties include two-dimensional repre- sentation of diverse, three-dimensional information both in the periphery and in the brain, the representation of multiple and sometimes overlapping images, and simulta- neous representation of bilateral and unilateral data.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIt is this unresolvable difficulty which makes the homunculus an unsatisfactory and perhaps even misleading image.
“it is this unresolvable difficulty which makes the homunculus an unsatisfactory and per- haps even misleading image.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Scientific illustrations of brain function should be accurate and unambiguous to be scientifically valuable.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningInappropriate representation could actually impede scientific advance.
“inappropriate representation could actually impede scientific advance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPenfield's homunculus is ambiguous in what exactly it represents and gives an unjustified impression of cortical representation that is both single and established.
“Thus Penfield's homunculus is not only ambiguous in what exactly it does represent, but also gives an unjustified impression of cortical representation which is both single and established.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe homunculus appears now to have degenerated into a purely artistic device vaguely based on animal experimental work, without any scientific basis to justify the human form portrayed.
“The homunculus appears now to have degenerated into a purely artistic device vaguely based on animal experimental work, without any scientific basis to justify the human form portrayed.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationFor the sensory homunculus, Merzenich et al provide evidence for multiple maps representing different functions, and there is evidence in non-human primates that there are as many as seven or more somatosensory areas.
“For the sensory homunculus, Merzenich et aO provide evidence for multi- ple maps representing different functions, and there is evidence in non-human primates that there are as many as seven or more somatosensory areas”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Merzenich et aO
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [10] Welker C. Receptive fields of barrels in the somatosensory neocortex of the rat. 7 Comtparative Neuirol 1976;166: 173-190. source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe essence of all such drawings is that they are forms of maps, which represent how one collection of points is linked to another.
“The essence of all such drawings is that they are forms of maps, which represent how one collection of points is linked to another.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] Welker C. Receptive fields of barrels in the somatosensory neocortex of the rat. 7 Comtparative Neuirol 1976;166: 173-190. source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningIn the first homunculus, what was actually represented was ambiguous and confusing.
“what actually was represented, however, was ambiguous and confusing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThere is uncertainty as to what actually was being represented in the homunculi.
“there is uncertainty as to what actually was being represented.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenSome patients report that the phantom that follows amputation often fades, but it does so in a non-sequential manner.
“Some patients report that the phantom that follows amputation often fades, but it does so in a non-sequential manner.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe first figurine was human, with Penfield's homunculus the precedent for the profusion of illustrations of experimental work on animals.
“Nevertheless, the first figurine was human, with Penfield's homunculus the precedent for the profusion of illustrations of experimental work on animals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe border between fact and imagination has been blurred in the homunculus, and it has been imbued with character.
“The border between fact and imagination has been blurred: the homunculus has been imbued with character”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationnone givenThe homunculus as represented by Penfield gives the impression of single motor and sensory maps.
“the homunculus as represented by Penfield gives the impres- sion of single motor and sensory maps.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningIt is clear that both scientifically and graphically there is considerable ambiguity in what Penfield was intending to illustrate.
“It is clear that both scientifically and graphically there is considerable ambiguity in what Penfield was intending to illustrate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningWith Penfield's stated aim to analyse the data without preconception, it is curiously contradictory to represent meticulous scientific observations by means of a homunculus.
“With this stated aim, however, it seems curiously contradictory to represent meticulous scientific observa- tions by means of an homunculus.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationIn the 1950 illustration, a diagram of a cross-section of the cerebral hemispheres had solid bars at the periphery, the length of the bars giving an indication of the relative cortical areas from which the corresponding responses were elicited.
“the length of the bars giving an indication of the relative cortical areas from which the corresponding responses were elicited.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] Creutzfeldt OD. Cortex cerebri. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1983: 216.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The paper relies on this without support.
Scientific illustrations of brain function should be accurate and unambiguous to be scientifically valuable.
“Maps, however, are designed to be accurate as well as informative”
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BackgroundFunctional parcellation using time courses of instantaneous connectivity
van Oort, E. S. B., Mennes, M., Schröder, T. N., Kumar, V., Jimenez, N. I. Z., Grodd, W., Doeller, C. F., & Beckmann, C. F. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.07.027 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…primates and in humans, has furthered our understanding of this somatotopic mapping, and introduced the concept of the homunculus (Rao et al., 1995; Schott, 1993), forming a detailed functional topography within the motor cortex that has previously x (left) compared to known cytoarchitectonic…”
ResultBernabéu, Á., Mollá-Torró, J. V., López‐Celada, S., et al. (2019) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-019-06352-z · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“We found bilateral activation of the pre- and postcentral gyrus along the central sulcus in all subjects, reflecting activation of the primary sensorimotor cortex [30].”
BackgroundMohan, A., & Vanneste, S. (2017) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.03.010 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“One of the rare, yet popular visual phantoms is the perception of complex images such as faces of people, landscapes, animals, and trees in inappropriate scenarios following deafferentation of visual input, known as Charles Bonnet Syndrome (Schadlu et al., 2009; Schultz and Melzack, 1991).”
InfluentialPan, C., Peck, K. K., Young, R. J., & Holodny, A. I. (2012) · American Journal of Neuroradiology · doi:10.3174/ajnr.a2952 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
The Hermunculus: What Is Known about the Representation of the Female Body in the Brain?
Nota, P. M. D., Newman, L., Wall, S., et al. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs005 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Microsurgical anatomy of the central lobe
Frigeri, T. M., Paglioli, E., de OLIVEIRA, E., et al. (2015) · Journal of neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2014.11.jns14315 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Implantable brain computer interface: Challenges to neurotechnology translation
Konrad, P. E., & Shanks, T. (2009) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.12.007 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Although Penfield is credited with systematically mapping the physiological architecture of cortical function in humans (Feindel, 1982; Schott, 1993), his discoveries were built on previous animal work by Sherrington and Foerster (primates and non-primates), Fritzch and Hitzig (dogs) and Ferrier…”
MethodShin, J., & Jeong, J. (2014) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.19.6.067009 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“33 From this physiological reason, we can classify the hemodynamic responses evoked by arm lifting and knee extension using the Δ C HbO at D4.”
MethodIntegration of vibrotactile frequency information beyond the mechanoreceptor channel and somatotopy
Kuroki, S., Watanabe, J., & Nishida, S. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-02922-7 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Qiu, T., Chen, L., Mao, Y. Q., Wu, J., Tang, W., Hu, S.-N., Zhou, L., & Gu, Y.-D. (2013) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2013-304956 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Bayesian population receptive field modeling in human somatosensory cortex
Puckett, A. M., Bollmann, S., Junday, K., Barth, M., & Cunnington, R. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116465 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Park, S.-H., & Lee, S.-G. (2017) · IEEE Sensors Journal · doi:10.1109/jsen.2017.2671842 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Manipulating the Perceived Shape and Color of a Virtual Limb Can Modulate Pain Responses
Matamala-Gomez, M., Nierula, B., Donegan, T., Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9020291 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“highlighted the importance of the preserved representation of the amputated limb in the area of the brain where the former hand was represented [51] as a key factor involved in chronic phantom pain.”
BackgroundReports of intimate touch: Erogenous zones and somatosensory cortical organization
Turnbull, O. H., Lovett, V. E., Chaldecott, J., & Lucas, M. (2013) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.07.010 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…2008; Bradley, Farrell, & Ojemann, 1998; Georgiadis & Holstege, 2005; Georgiadis et al., 2006; Kell, von Kriegstein, Rösler, Kleinschmidt, & Laufs, 2005; Komisaruk et al., 2011; Michels, Mehnert, Boy, Schurch, & Kollias, 2010; Penfield & Boldrey, 1937; Penfield & Rasmussen, 1950; Schott, 1993).”
Blepharospasm and the modulation of cortical excitability in primary and secondary motor areas
Kranz, G., Shamim, E. A., Lin, P. T., Kranz, G., Voller, B., & Hallett, M. (2009) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181c5b42d · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Shenoy Handiru, V., Vinod, A. P., & Guan, C. (2017) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/aa6baf · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Neurologic Heuristics and Artistic Whimsy: The Cerebral Cartography Of Wilder Penfield
Snyder, P. J., & Whitaker, H. A. (2013) · Journal of the History of the Neurosciences · doi:10.1080/0964704x.2012.757965 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Schott made two very important points regarding the basic assumptions underlying the depiction of motor or sensory homunculi in the brain (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundInfluentialBCI classification using locally generated CSP features
Park, Y., & Chung, W. (2018) · International Conference on Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) · doi:10.1109/iww-bci.2018.8311492 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“[7] LS-SVM Classifier, accessed on Oct. 26, 2015.”
InfluentialJahangiri, A., & Sepulveda, F. (2018) · Journal of Medical Systems · doi:10.1007/s10916-018-1137-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Nsugbe, E., Samuel, O. W., Asogbon, M. G., & Li, G. (2021) · IET Cyber-Systems and Robotics · doi:10.1049/csy2.12009 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“For transhumeral amputees, this remains an area that requires further investigation, as it has not been possible to investigate this question further due to the recruited amputees, whose data was used for the analysis, being trauma ‐ based amputees [37,39].”
BackgroundMapping of sheep sensory cortex with a novel microelectrocorticography grid
Gierthmuehlen, M., Wang, X., Gkogkidis, C. A., Henle, C., Fischer, J., Fehrenbacher, T., Kohler, F., Raab, M., Mader, I., Kuehn, C., et al. (2014) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.23631 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“This cortex features a cartographic representation of the creature’s body in a somatotopic manner (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundNeuroelectric Correlates of Human Sexuality: A Review and Meta-Analysis
Ziogas, A., Habermeyer, E., Santtila, P. O., Poeppl, T. B., & Mokros, A. (2020) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-019-01547-3 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Magnetoencephalography in fronto-parietal opercular epilepsy
Kakisaka, Y., Iwasaki, M., Alexopoulos, A. V., et al. (2012) · Epilepsy Research · doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2012.05.003 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Notably, the somatotopic representation of the lower peri-rolandic and opercular areas has not been fully clarified (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundNeuroanatomy, Precentral Gyrus
Banker, L., & Tadi, P. (2019) · StatPearls · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Channel Selection for Optimal EEG Measurement in Motor Imagery-Based Brain-Computer Interfaces
Arpaïa, P., Donnarumma, F., Espósito, A., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Neural Systems · doi:10.1142/s0129065721500039 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The Montreal procedure: The legacy of the great Wilder Penfield
Ladino, L. D., Rizvi, S., & Téllez‐Zenteno, J. F. (2018) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.04.001 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Primary hand motor representation areas in healthy children, preadolescents, adolescents, and adults
Säïsänen, L., Könönen, M., Niskanen, E. I., Lakka, T. A., Lintu, N., Vanninen, R. L., Julkunen, P., & Määttä, S. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117702 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
7T ultra-high-field neuroimaging for mental health: an emerging tool for precision psychiatry?
Neuner, I., Veselinović, T., Ramkiran, S., Rajkumar, R., Schnellbächer, G. J., & Shah, N. J. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-01787-3 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The LE further decreased significantly in the right precentral gyrus, that is known as the location of the primary motor cortex [65].”
BackgroundMan‐in‐the‐Barrel Syndrome Associated with Closed Head Injury
Crisostomo, E. A., & Suslavich, F. (1994) · Journal of Neuroimaging · doi:10.1111/jon199442116 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Revealing the invisible: the paradox of picturing a phantom limb
Schott, G. D. (2013) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awt244 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The same empirical consideration applies to Penfield and Boldrey’s homunculi, which too were necessarily drawn with outlines demarcating the extent of the body parts mapped over the cerebral cortex (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBarinaga, M. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7792588 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Hidalgo‐Pérez, A., Fernández-García, Á., López‐de‐Uralde‐Villanueva, I., Gil‐Martínez, A., Paris‐Alemany, A., Fernández‐Carnero, J., & Touche, R. L. (2015) · PubMed Central · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Black, R. D., & Rogers, L. L. (2020) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2020.00012 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“The tongue also has a high density of somatosensory receptors, as can be seen in images of the somatosensory homunculus, originally created by Penfield (Schott, 1993). The authors assert that tongue stimulation results in less non-specific brain activation as compared with other NIBS approaches. In Wildenberg et al. (…”
BackgroundLearning about brain physiology and complexity from the study of the epilepsies
Garcia‐Cairasco, N. (2009) · Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research · doi:10.1590/s0100-879x2009000100012 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Previous, current, and future stereotactic EEG techniques for localising epileptic foci
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Deep-Learning-Based Automatic Selection of Fewest Channels for Brain–Machine Interfaces
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Brief history of electrical cortical stimulation: A journey in time from Volta to Penfield
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Emerging principles in functional representations of touch
Tamè, L., & Longo, M. R. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00197-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The topographic organisation of somatosensory cortex is well captured by one of the most famous illustrations in neuroscience, the somatosensory (and motor) homunculus 37 (Fig.”
Wahezi, S. E., Caparo, M. A., Malhotra, R., Sundaram, L., Batti, K. S., Ejindu, P., Veeramachaneni, R. P., Anițescu, M., Hunter, C., Naeimi, T., et al. (2024) · Neuromodulation Technology at the Neural Interface · doi:10.1016/j.neurom.2023.11.002 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Maguire, C. C., Sieben, J. M., & de Bie, R. A. (2018) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2018.1434579 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“These lead to the development of the motor homunculus (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundConceptual developments in the neurosciences relevant to psychiatry
Spitzer, M. (1995) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00001504-199509000-00011 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
An improved version of local activities estimation to enhance motor imagery classification
Togha, M. M., Salehi, M. R., & Abiri, E. (2021) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2021.102485 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The History of Neuroanesthesiology
Lanier, W. L. (2012) · Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/ana.0b013e3182697743 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Psychotic Experience and Disordered Thinking: A Reappraisal from New Perspectives
SCHWARTZ, M. A., Wiggins, O. P., & Spitzer, M. (1997) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199703000-00007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Human mimetic forearm mechanism towards bionic arm
Seo, M., Kim, H., & Choi, Y. (2017) · International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics · doi:10.1109/icorr.2017.8009408 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“According to the reference [1], hand takes 32% of the motor cortex area in the brain.”
BackgroundExercise and microstructural changes in the motor cortex of older adults
Rowley, C. D., Bock, N. A., Deichmann, R., Engeroff, T., Hattingen, E., Hellweg, R., Pilatus, U., Füzéki, E., Gerten, S., Vogt, L., et al. (2019) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14585 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“For the ROI analysis, the dorsal medial precentral gyrus was chosen as it best corresponds to the leg region of motor cortex (Schott, 1993), in the absence of individual functional maps to precisely depict the region in each subject (Kocak, Ulmer, Sahin Ugurel, Gaggl, & Prost, 2009).”
MethodVerst, S. M., Chung, T. M., Sucena, A. C., et al. (2012) · Acta Neurochirurgica · doi:10.1007/s00701-012-1505-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The representation of the thumb on the Penfield homunculus at the somatosensory cortex is more superior and medial to the representation of the lips, which are more lateral [14, 17, 19, 20].”
BackgroundWang, L., Zhang, Z., Okada, T., Li, C., Chen, D., Funahashi, S., Wu, J., & Yan, T. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab097 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This is one of the important neuronal encoding schemes in S1, which was first drawn by Penfield as a homunculus (Penfield and Boldrey 1937; Penfield and Jasper 1954; Schott 1993).”
BackgroundKakisaka, Y., Iwasaki, M., Haginoya, K., et al. (2010) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2010.09.026 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Details of the somatotopic map in the lower central sulcus, responsible for laryngeal, pharyngeal, oral, and facial function, remain unclear (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundEccles’ perspective of the forebrain, its role in skilled movements, and the mind–brain problem
Wiesendanger, M. (2006) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2006.02.004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of brain morphometric aberrations in adolescents who experienced childhood trauma
Tymofiyeva, O., Hu, R., Kidambi, R., Nguyen, C., Max, J. E., & Yang, T. T. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.1022791 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“gyrus also contains a portion of the supplementary motor cortex, which is involved in the planning of voluntary limb movement (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundThe Pragmatics of Sustainable Unmaking: Informing Technology Design through e-Waste Folk Strategies
Khan, A. H., Sabie, S., & Vyas, D. (2023) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3563657.3596056 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Can Wearable Devices Facilitate a Driver’s Brake Response Time in a Classic Car-Following Task?
Zhu, A., Cao, S. C., Yao, H., Jadliwala, M. S., & Hu, J. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2971632 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“PenfieldHomunculus [40], which suggests a topographic correspondence between body sensory areas and the brain cortex for sensory and motor processing [41].”
BackgroundEtiology of phantom limb syndrome: Insights from a 3D default space consciousness model
Jerath, R., Crawford, M. W., & Jensen, M. (2015) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2015.04.025 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Somatosensory homunculi, cortical representations of the human body, are located in the primary somatosensory cortex, ventral posterior thalamus (VPN), periaqueductal and periventricular gray matter [36], and primary motor cortex [54].”
BackgroundMulti-direction hand movement classification using EEG-based source space analysis
Handiru, V. S., Vinod, A. P., & Guan, C. (2016) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc.2016.7591740 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“It is because the cortical activation regions corresponding to such complex tasks are often overlapping and located very close to each other inside the cortex [9].”
BackgroundBonnal, J., Özsancak, C., Monnet, F., et al. (2023) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-023-00972-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“According to the classical homunculus, the area representing the shoulder muscles is more medial than that of the finger muscles in the primary motor cortex (Schott 1993).”
BackgroundKimura, Y., Yamada, S., Komatsu, K., et al. (2024) · Journal of neurosurgery · doi:10.3171/2024.2.jns232753 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Task load modulates tDCS effects on language performance
de Almeida, L. R., Pope, P. A., & Hansen, P. (2019) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.24490 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…2010; Davare, Lemon, & Olivier, 2008), but seems to also play a role in articulatory planning with the LIFGop (Duffau et al., 2003; Maldonado, Moritz‐Gasser, & Duffau, 2011), and the adjacent primary motor cortex, involved with movements of muscles of the oral cavity (Feher, 2012; Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundEncoding experience: Quantifying multisensory perception of urban form through a systematic review
Kavee, K., & Flanigan, K. A. (2025) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2025.102349 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Chung, K., & Shin, D. (2015) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2015.06.003 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Garcia-Lopez, A., Martínez, V. M. C., Ortiz, T., Sánchez‐Pena, J. M., & Vergaz, R. (2022) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics11142196 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…according to the corresponding space that the cortex assigns to each organ, where the larger the size, the greater the sensitivity of the tissue [45]. choice of these motor placement points was based on the Penfield ho-munculus, which represents a map of the location of the organs and senses in…”
MethodComposite Agency: Semiotics of Modularity and Guiding Interactions
Sharov, A. A. (2017) · Biosemiotics · doi:10.1007/s12304-017-9301-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“It appears that human body is mapped onto the brain cortex along the central groove, where motor cortex areas are located near sensorial cortex areas for the same body part (Schott 1993).”
BackgroundTan, F. M., Caballero‐Gaudes, C., Mullinger, K. J., Cho, S., Zhang, Y., Dryden, I. L., Francis, S., & Gowland, P. A. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23767 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Meta-analysis works well in SMN due to the high selectivity of its cortical organization with limited overlap between activated regions for different motor tasks [Penfield and Rasmussen; Penfield and Boldrey, 1937; Schott, 1993].”
BackgroundMarzell, R., Reichwein, G., Gieler, U., Kupfer, J., & Schut, C. (2019) · British Journal of Dermatology · doi:10.1111/bjd.18368 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Phantom Pains and Prosthetic Narratives
Minnis, A. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108989695 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Kershman’s sad reflections on the homunculus
Feinsod, M. (2005) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000150893.86066.29 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Kakinoki, R., Duncan, S. F. M., Ikeguchi, R., et al. (2017) · The Journal of Hand Surgery (Asian-Pacific Volume) · doi:10.1142/s0218810417500162 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Using subdural electrodes to assess the safety of resections
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Guenther, K. M. (2016) · Canadian Journal of Health History · doi:10.3138/cbmh.33.2.148-27012015 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Body Schema and Body Image: History and Controversies
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“…describing Penfield's homunculus showed that the precise topography of cortical localization indicates that motor and sensory phenomena affecting a particular part of the body stimulate a nonoverlapping, discrete part of the cerebral cortical motor and sensory cortex, respectively (Schott, 1993).”
BackgroundPenfield Homunculus and Recent Advances in Brain Mapping
Morishita, T., Miki, K., & Inoue, T. (2019) · World Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.11.115 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Isolated Index Finger Palsy Due to Cortical Infarction
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La vía piramidal: nuevas trayectorias
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Body Image and the Parietal Lobes
Trimble, M. (2007) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900021283 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Spastic foot-drop as an isolated manifestation of neurocysticercosis
Sahu, R., Garg, R. K., Malhotra, H. S., et al. (2012) · BMJ Case Reports · doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-006795 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The Penfield’s motor homunculus provides a visual somatotopic localisation of ankle and toe in the parasagittal region which has also been confirmed by brain functional localisation studies.(10) In our patient, the common peripheral causes of footdrop were excluded by clinical examination, laboratory findings and norm…”
- Authors
- Schott, G. D.
- Corresponding author
- Schott, G D
- ORCID
- Schott, G D
- Venue
- Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 1993-04-01
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 329-333
- ISSN
- 0022-3050 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC1014945
- OpenAlex
- W1977511501
- Semantic Scholar
- 8e4cf6a9481532759799d868ea788a5ac066c05d
- Cited by
- 222
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 8
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurology and Historical Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › History of Medical Practice
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Medicine
- Keywords
- homunculus, cortical mapping, sensory homunculus, motor homunculus
- MeSH terms
- Brain Mapping, Humans, Medical Illustration, Motor Cortex, Somatosensory Cortex, United States, History, 20th Century
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