Seeing Like an Infrastructure: Low-resolution Citizens and the Aadhaar Identification Project

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors have also met and interviewed many high-resolution citizens for whom Aadhaar works seamlessly when accessing services.

“While in our field stories we focus on low-resolution citizens, we have also met and interviewed many high-resolution citizens for whom Aadhaar works seamlessly when accessing services.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

High-resolution citizens find it easier to align their data with their way of life.

“High-resolution citizens find it easier to align their data with their way of life.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Low-resolution citizens struggle to overcome the ineluctable differences between their data and their way of life.

“Low-resolution citizens struggle to overcome the ineluctable differences between their data and their way of life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The first author has an Aadhaar number and has successfully authenticated his identity using it several times.

“The first author has an Aadhaar number and has successfully authenticated his identity using it several times.”

May combine two claims.

In this spectrum of resolution, the rights and entitlements of 'high-resolution citizens' are expanded, while those of 'low-resolution citizens' are curtailed.

“in which the rights and entitlements of 'high-resolution citizens' are expanded, while those of 'low-resolution citizens' are curtailed.”

• Also stated in: § 1 INTRODUCTION · plain

  “This unevenness in turn shapes access to the rights and entitlements of citizenship (here, food subsidies and related welfare benefits) such that those of 'high-resolution citizens' are expanded, while those of 'low-resolution citizens' are curtailed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Documentary analysis of government reports, legal documents, and news stories revealed how Aadhaar was envisioned to standardize citizen data and renovate last mile delivery of government services, such as the Public Distribution System (PDS).

“Documentary analysis [10] of these primary and secondary sources revealed how Aadhaar was envisioned to standardize citizen data and renovate last mile delivery of government services, such as, the Public Distribution System (PDS): a government scheme to provide subsidized food grains to belowpoverty line (BPL) families in India.”

• cites [10] 10. Glenn A. Bowen. 2009. Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative Research Journal 9, 2: 27- 40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

While for high-resolution citizens Aadhaar often works in its designed way, for low-resolution citizens it breaks down in unevenly distributed ways.

“While for high-resolution citizens Aadhaar often works in its designed way, for low-resolution citizens it breaks down in unevenly distributed ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Right to Food activists had mixed responses to the plans for Aadhaar-enabled PDS in 2015.

“At the time, Right to Food activists, who track the implementation of PDS in India, had mixed responses to these plans.”

May combine two claims.

In the Right to Food survey, many beneficiaries did not understand the transition steps and had not received any cash.

“As evidenced in the Right to Food survey, many beneficiaries did not understand the steps involved in the transition and had not received any cash.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In the paper's stories, homeless people with no identity documents are at the lowest end of the resolution spectrum, often invisible and struggling for state recognition, while beneficiaries receiving cash-based PDS subsidies in bank accounts are at the highest end, bureaucratically recognized and full members of India's formal economy.

“At the highest end are beneficiaries receiving cash based PDS subsidies in their bank accounts.They are not only bureaucratically recognized as citizens but are also full-fledged members of India's formal economy.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The final barrier confronting citizens is the challenge of effective authentication.

“The final barrier confronting citizens is the challenge of effective authentication.”

May combine two claims.

Some beneficiaries who had purportedly completed the steps had either not checked their bank accounts or were looking for cash in the wrong account.

“Others who had purportedly completed the steps had either not checked their bank accounts in the four months since the transition or were looking for cash in the wrong account.”

May combine two claims.

While most citizens have been able to enroll in Aadhaar, others struggled to provide data even for the simplified categories, and registration in and access to other Aadhaar-based services exacerbated this by requiring more data for new categories evaluating eligibility during seeding and validity of claims during authentication.

“While most citizens have been able to enroll into Aadhaar, others struggled to provide data even for these simplified categories.Furthermore, citizens' registration in and access to other Aadhaar-based services exacerbated this challenge because it involved providing more data for new categories of evaluating their eligibility for services (during seeding) and the validity of their claims to”

May combine two claims.

Aadhaar's design team conceived a minimal combination of demographic and biometric data categories necessary for registration and sufficient to represent oneself in other services, simplifying data representation to foster inclusion; simplification excludes but can also serve to include.

“Members conceived of a minimal combination of demographic and biometric data categories necessary for registration in Aadhaar and sufficient to represent oneself in other services.They simplified data representation of individuals to foster inclusion.Simplification excludes but can also serve to include.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Using an NGO's address for a homeless person's Aadhaar can exclude them from voting in their actual constituency and from PDS in their actual place of residence.

“Suppose we put in Aashraya address in South Delhi for a homeless person who lives in North Delhi.This is a problem because if, for example, [he gets his Voter ID based on Aadhaar] he would only be eligible to vote for a constituency in South Delhi instead of North Delhi.Or worse, this person may not be able to lay any claim on where he lives in North Delhi, despite the fact that he has been living”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

When the work of representing and claiming representation through data is misaligned, it produces visibility in low resolution.

“On the other hand, when the work of representing and claiming representation through data is misaligned, it produces visibility in low resolution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

When efforts to represent and claim representation through data align, they produce visibility in high resolution.

“On the one hand, when the efforts to represent and claim representation through data align, they produce visibility in high resolution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The UIDAI estimated that only 25% of benefits reach PDS beneficiaries.

“the UIDAI estimated that only 25% of benefits reach PDS beneficiaries [96].”

• cites [96] 96. John Torpey. 2000. The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship, and the State. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All respondents have been anonymized and their affiliations masked to protect privacy.

“All respondents have been anonymized and their affiliations masked to protect privacy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Data systems have inevitable constraints in representing complex lifeworlds of people.

“Data systems have inevitable constraints in representing complex lifeworlds of people.”

May combine two claims.

Large-scale data systems are endemically uneven in implementation, and this unevenness produces distributed and exclusionary consequences that are among their most important effects.

“Such systems are endemically uneven in implementation, producing distributed and exclusionary consequences that are among their most important effects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The spectrum between low- and high-resolution is crucial for analyzing the politics and uneven consequences of data infrastructures.

“This spectrum between low-and high-resolution is crucial for analyzing the politics and uneven consequences of data infrastructures.”

May combine two claims.

A person's resolution and their efforts to work with, around, and against it are the conditions for making citizenship claims and holding the state accountable in delivery of services.

“A person's resolution and their efforts to work with, around, and against it are the conditions for making citizenship claims and holding the state accountable in delivery of services.”

May combine two claims.

Large-scale data systems are central to contemporary governance and to how state bureaucracies know and manage citizens, including last-mile delivery of services such as identity verification and welfare distribution.

“Large-scale data systems have become increasingly central to the work of contemporary governance, including in the last mile delivery of government services such as citizen identity verification and distribution of welfare [3,110].”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “Large-scale data systems play a central role in how state bureaucracies come to know and manage citizens.”

• cites [3] 3. Philip Alston. 2019. Report of the Special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights. Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Retrieved from https://undocs.org/A/74/493Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [110] 110. Wire Staff. 2015. 'Most Aadhar Cards Issued to Those Who Already Have IDs.' The Wire. Retrieved from https://thewire.in/law/most-aadhar-cards-issued-to-those-who-already-have-idsNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The analysis of field stories followed a grounded theory approach, beginning with substantive description of the uneven implementation of key processes and moving to the more abstract analytic perspective of seeing like an infrastructure.

“Our analysis of field stories followed a grounded theory approach [18], beginning with substantive description of the uneven implementation of these key processes and its consequences and moving to more abstract analytic perspective of seeing like an infrastructure.”

• cites [18] 18. Juliet Corbin and Anselm Strauss. 2015. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Transgendered people experienced discrimination at enrollment centers and challenges in certifying their gender identity.

“the transgendered who experienced discrimination at enrollment centers and challenges in effectively certifying their gender identity [67,83]”

• cites [67] 67. Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Arun Menon. 2013. The Social Category of the "Introducer." In In the Wake of Aadhaar: The Digital Ecosystem of Governance in India, Ashish Rajadhyaksha (ed.). Centre for the Study of Culture & Society, Bengaluru, 131-155. Retrieved from https://pad.ma/documents/PI PACM on Human-Computer Interaction, Vol. 5, No. CSCW2, Article 315, Publication date: October 2021.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [83] 83. Seetha. 2017. Evaluating direct cash transfers Part-II: Correct the mistakes and go ahead, junking PDS reforms wholesale is no solution. FirstPost. Retrieved from https://www.firstpost.com/business/evaluating-direct-cash- transfers-part-ii-correct-the-mistakes-and-go-ahead-junking-pds-reforms-wholesale-is-no-solution-4018771.htmlNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Homeless people faced difficulties recording biometric data and often lacked proofs of identity and address.

“the homeless, who not only faced troubles in recording their biometric data, but also often lacked proofs of identity and address [65]”

• cites [65] 65. PTI. 2013. Andhra Pradesh Postal Department faces problems in delivery of Aadhaar card. NDTV. Retrieved from http://www.ndtv.com/article/south/andhra-pradesh-postal-department-faces-problems-in-delivery-of-aadhaar-card- 341913Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Visibility also manifests the existence of a person in a population; it is a recognition of their rights, entitlements, and obligations; it is a condition for participation in a democracy.

“We argue that visibility also manifests the existence of a person in a population.It is a recognition of their rights, entitlements, and obligations; it is a condition for participation in a democracy.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This standardization is intended to reduce the role of intermediaries and thereby limit corruption in last mile delivery of government services.

“This standardization is intended to minimize the role of intermediaries and thus limit corruption in the last mile delivery of government services.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Aadhaar is intended to uniquely identify Indian residents for any public or private service.

“Aadhaar is designed to uniquely identify Indian residents for any public/private service.”

• cites [57:224]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Resolution is a contingent and accountable relationship between actors mediated through data infrastructures over time and across places.

“To conclude, resolution-and the affordances and limits that it confers-is a contingent and accountable relationship between actors mediated through data infrastructures over time and across places.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The more alignment between efforts to represent and claim representation through data, the higher the resolution.

“The more alignment there is between the efforts to represent and claim representation through data, the higher is the resolution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Aadhaar Authentication Framework documents five types of user authentication using different combinations of demographic information, mobile numbers, and biometric information.

“The Aadhaar Authentication Framework [98] documents five types of user authentications, leveraging different combinations of demographic information, mobile numbers, and biometric information.”

• cites [98] 98. UIDAI. 2010. UIDAI Strategy Overview: Creating a Unique Identity Number for Every Resident in India. New Delhi: Unique Identification Authority of India. Retrieved from https://www.dropbox.com/s/eg9p5uzucsd9t5r/UIDAI_Strategy_Overview_2010.pdfNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In experiences of data-driven marginalization, 'torque' pulls low-resolution citizens back in their efforts to align with core data categories, while in experiences of data-driven efficiency, 'torque' pushes high-resolution citizens forward as they align with core data categories.

“In experiences of data-driven marginalization in Aadhaar-based services, 'torque' pulls low-resolution citizens back in their efforts to overcome the challenges of aligning with core data categories.”

• Also stated in: § 5 · plain

  “In experiences of data-driven efficiency through Aadhaar, 'torque' pushes highresolution citizens forward as they experience alignment with core data categories.”

May combine two claims.

Citizens are required to express identity in Aadhaar's core data categories and to use them effectively to claim welfare entitlements and wider rights of citizenship, an ability not equally distributed.

“If citizens are expected to express their identity in core data categories prescribed by Aadhaar, they are also required to use them effectively to claim welfare entitlements and wider rights of citizenship-an ability that is also not equally distributed.”

May combine two claims.

Many citizens could access PDS entitlements when it was a standalone service using paper ration cards, but their access was curtailed when they failed to manage Aadhaar data circulation.

“Many of these citizens were able to access their PDS entitlements when it was organized as a standalone government service that relied on paper-based ration cards.Their access was curtailed when they failed to manage the circulation of their Aadhaar data.”

May combine two claims.

Beneficiaries who repeatedly fail authentication and fall into the residual category of 'duplicate' must prove both their uniqueness and that they have not forsaken their entitlements.

“Beneficiaries who fall into the residual category of 'duplicate' because of repeated authentication failures (false negatives) over time will not only have to prove that they are unique, but also that they have not forsaken their entitlements.”

May combine two claims.

Circulation is agnostic to the correctness of collected data and to citizens' resolution; the flow of correct data increases resolution and incorrect data decreases it.

“Circulation is agnostic to the correctness of collected data and the resolution of citizens, the flow of correct data increases and incorrect data decreases resolution.”

May combine two claims.

Falling into 'unique' or 'duplicate' categories depends on the nature of available data and the techniques used for interpretation; incorrect data makes interpretation harder, and how and when data is stored or not stored shapes interpretive possibilities.

“However, falling into any of these categories is not given.It depends on: (1) the nature of the available data; and (2) the techniques used for interpretation.Starting with the nature of available data, incorrect data inevitably makes interpretation harder.Furthermore, how, and when data is stored or not stored also shapes the possibilities of interpretation.”

May combine two claims.

State governments in Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan are seeding Aadhaar numbers into their PDS databases and plan to distribute subsidized food grains after biometric authentication using electronic Point of Sale machines with fingerprint readers.

“Apart from pilot projects on cash based PDS in union territories such as Chandigarh [55], states governments across the country such as in Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan are seeding Aadhaar numbers into their PDS database.They plan to distribute subsidized food grains after authenticating beneficiaries using electronic Point of Sale machines with fingerprint readers [60,81,112].”

• cites [60] 60. PIB. 2017. Individual beneficiaries having Ration Cards under NFSA to furnish proof of possession of Aadhaar number or undergo Aadhaar authentication to receive subsidies under NFSA. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=158329Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [81] 81. James C Scott. 2017. Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States. Yale University Press, New Haven and London.Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites [112] 112. Anumeha Yadav. 2016. Seven reasons why Parliament should debate the Aadhaar bill (and not pass it in a rush). Scroll.in. Retrieved from http://scroll.in/article/804922/seven-reasons-why-parliament-should-debate-the-aadhaar- bill-and-not-pass-it-in-a-rushNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The politics of resolution is intertwined with the prescribed purpose of the infrastructure that produces it; high resolution in welfare distribution means inclusion, while in criminal investigations or citizen-immigrant differentiation it implies greater potential for surveillance and privacy invasion.

“Here the politics of resolution is deeply intertwined with the prescribed purpose of the infrastructure that produces it.For example, on one hand, high resolution in the context of a public data infrastructure geared towards distributing welfare means inclusion.On the other hand, it implies greater potential of surveillance and invasion of privacy when the same infrastructure is used for criminal”

May combine two claims.

Circulation requires abstracting contingencies of registration to standardize data as stable representations of citizens; correct data underlies data-driven efficiencies in last-mile delivery, while incorrect data further marginalizes citizens from accessing services.

“Circulation requires abstracting contingencies of registration to standardize data as stable representations of citizens.While correct data underlies everyday experiences of data-driven efficiencies in last mile delivery of services, incorrect data further marginalizes citizens from accessing them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Delhi government began integrating Aadhaar with the Public Distribution System in 2013.

“The Delhi government, for instance, has been working on connecting Aadhaar with PDS since 2013 [7].”

• cites [7] 7. Gaurav Vivek Bhatnagar. 2018. PDS Shopkeepers in Delhi Found Diverting Rations by Misusing Point of Sale Machines. The Wire. Retrieved from https://thewire.in/government/pds-shopkeepers-delhi-found-diverting-rations- misusing-point-sale-machinesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Enrollment requires circulation of existing ID documents and interpretation of collected biometric data to ensure a citizen's uniqueness before registration into Aadhaar; seeding requires registration into the seeded database and interpretation of eligibility and informed consent in the circulation of Aadhaar numbers; authentication requires registration and circulation of service transactions and

“Enrollment requires circulation of existing ID documents and interpretation of biometric data collected to ensure a citizen's uniqueness before their registration into Aadhaar.Seeding requires registration into the seeded database and interpretation of a citizen's eligibility and informed consent to access services in the circulation of Aadhaar numbers.Authentication requires registration and”

May combine two claims.

Being recognized as 'unique' increased citizens' resolution, while being categorized as 'duplicate' rendered them invisible.

“While being recognized as 'unique' increased the resolution of citizens, being categorized in the residual category of 'duplicate' rendered them invisible.”

May combine two claims.

These forms of work sustain citizens' visibility to state bureaucracies and co-constitute what it means to be unique data of a rightful beneficiary in a welfare database.

“These kinds of work together sustain the visibility of a citizen to state bureaucracies and co-constitute what it means to be unique data of a rightful beneficiary in a welfare database.”

May combine two claims.

Interpretation relies on manual and algorithmic processing of data to identify patterns and produce new interpretive categories for classifying citizens; manual addition of Aadhaar numbers to government databases produced 'unique' and 'duplicate' records.

“Interpretation relies on manual as well as algorithmic ways of processing data to identify patterns and produce new interpretive categories for classifying citizens.For example, manual addition of Aadhaar numbers to government databases simultaneously produced two categories for interpreting citizen data: 'unique' and 'duplicate' records.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Enrollees need a UIDAI-issued certificate of enrollment (or Aadhaar letter) for an authenticating agent to certify their identity against demographic data in the Aadhaar database.

“Enrollees require a UIDAI-issued certificate of enrollment (or Aadhaar letter) for any authenticating agent to certify their identity against demographic data stored in the Aadhaar database.”

May combine two claims.

Because mobile numbers were optional during enrollment and many did not provide them, residents who failed to receive Aadhaar letters could not obtain them online either.

“However, as mobile numbers were explicitly optional during enrollment and many did not provide them (nor in all cases have them), residents failing to receive their Aadhaar letters were unable to obtain them online as well.”

May combine two claims.

Navigating the transition depended on beneficiaries' ability to manage the circulation of their Aadhaar identity, interact with the banking system, file complaints, and ensure food security.

“Navigating this transition was conditioned upon beneficiaries' ability to manage the circulation of their Aadhaar identity, interact with the banking system, file a complaint in cases of not receiving cash subsidy, and use it to ensure food security.”

May combine two claims.

Bureaucratic procedures in India have increasingly come to rely on Aadhaar-based data of citizens, making Aadhaar an infrastructure for organizing government services.

“Bureaucratic procedures in India have increasingly come to rely on Aadhaar-based data of citizens.Aadhaar, thus, has become the infrastructure of organizing government services.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

High resolution can also potentially marginalize people in diverse ways, such as formerly incarcerated people facing employment barriers due to criminal records.

“While we have focused on low resolution to uncover moments when infrastructures marginalize, high resolution can also potentially marginalize people in diverse ways, for example, in the struggles of the formerly incarcerated in securing employment because of their criminal record.”

May combine two claims.

The three mechanisms recursively build on and shape each other; for example, interpretation of Aadhaar number uniqueness builds on biometric registration and shapes conditions for circulation in other databases.

“Furthermore, these mechanisms recursively build on and shape each other.The interpretation of the uniqueness of Aadhaar numbers, for example, builds on registration of biometric data and shapes the conditions for their circulation in other databases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This interpretive work is not equally granted or available to all and is central to citizens' resolution rendered through Aadhaar.

“It is not equally granted or available to all and is therefore central to citizens' resolution rendered through Aadhaar.”

May combine two claims.

Maximizing mandatory data categories during Aadhaar enrollment excludes citizens who cannot provide data for them, and data categories enact filters of exclusion.

“However, as members of Aadhaar's design team noted, maximizing the number of mandatory data categories during enrollment excludes citizens who cannot provide data for them.Data categories enact filters of exclusion.”

May combine two claims.

Reasons for these delays included Post Office staffing challenges, incomplete addresses and wrong pin codes from enrollees, and enrolling agencies failing to upload enrollment data in time.

“Reasons for these delays ranged from staffing challenges at the Post Office [27] and incomplete addresses and wrong pin codes provided by enrollees [64], to the failure of enrolling agencies to upload enrollment data in time [58].”

• cites [27] 27. Express News Service. 2013. Aadhaar gives hard time to postman. The New Indian Express. Retrieved from http://newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/article1460030.eceNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [64] 64. Mythri Prasad-Aleyamma. 2018. Cards and carriers: migration, identification and surveillance in Kerala, South India. Contemporary South Asia 26, 2: 191-205. https://doi.org/10.1080/09584935.2017.1407293 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [58] 58. Nandan Nilekani and Viral Shah. 2015. Rebooting India: Realizing a Billion Aspirations. Penguin Books India, Gurgaon.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A data infrastructure can make many data subjects visible to organizational actors in service delivery while also effacing accounts of others it cannot or does not see.

“While a data infrastructure can make many data subjects visible to organizational actors in delivery of services, it can also easily efface accounts of others that it cannot and does not see.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Resolution is an analytic resource to map the making and management of difference enacted by data infrastructures in everyday lives of data subjects.

“More generally, resolution is an analytic resource to map the making and management of difference enacted by data infrastructures in everyday lives of data subjects.”

May combine two claims.

Registration simplifies and standardizes real-world entities through data categories, and the processes of making categorical judgments and building consensus over categories shape both the data collected and the understanding of the represented entity.

“Registration involves simultaneously simplifying and standardizing real-world entities through data categories.The processes of making categorical judgements and building consensus over these data categories shape not only the nature of the data collected, but also the understanding of the real-world entity being represented through data.”

May combine two claims.

Citizens are rendered through Aadhaar in varying degrees of resolution, and this resolution produces costly and unevenly distributed consequences for their life chances.

“Our field stories show that citizens are rendered through Aadhaar in varying degrees of resolution and their resolution produces costly and unevenly distributed consequences for their life chances.”

May combine two claims.

Expanding data categories reduces the scale of inclusion of citizens, increases a citizen's resolution, and decreases its consistency across the citizenry.

“Expanding data categories reduces the scale of the inclusion of citizens.It increases resolution of a citizen, and at the same time, decreases its consistency across citizenry.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In Seeing like an Infrastructure, this work is accomplished through categorical judgments.

“| How is this work done? | Simplification | Categorical judgments |”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Seeing like an infrastructure as a standpoint engenders consciousness about how data infrastructures mediate relations between organizations and users through registration, circulation, and interpretation of user data.

“As a standpoint, seeing like an infrastructure engenders a consciousness around how data infrastructures mediate relations between organizations and users through mechanisms of registration, circulation, and interpretation of user data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Analyzing resolution's impact on citizenship without critical reflection on existing state-citizen politics can obscure the state's role in perpetuating oppression and domination through data systems.

“In analyzing the impact of resolution on the nature and meaning of citizenship, placing oneself in the perspective of seeing like an infrastructure without critical reflection on the politics of existing state-citizen relations can potentially obscure the role of the state in perpetuating oppression and domination through data systems.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In Seeing like a State, this work is accomplished through simplification.

“| How is this work done? | Simplification | Categorical judgments |”

• cites [79] 79. Antina von Schnitzler. 2008. Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa*. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 4: 899-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802456821 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Seeing like an Infrastructure, this work occurs while navigating data representations.

“| When is this work done? | In administering a state | In navigating data representations |”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

To be a citizen is to be able to make claims on government services, and to do so citizens must be visible to state bureaucracies through their data.

“To be a citizen is to be able to make claims on these services; and to do so, citizens must be visible to state bureaucracies through their data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Neither citizenship nor the state are fixed and stable entities; they co-construct each other through lived practices and experiences of bureaucratic procedures.

“Neither citizenship nor the state are fixed and stable entities; rather, the two co-construct each other through lived practices and experiences of bureaucratic procedures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Resolution is crucial to map the balance of power in relations between actors organized around data infrastructures and their differential agencies in navigating and negotiating these relations.

“Resolution, thus, is crucial to map the balance of power in relations between actors increasingly organized around and through data infrastructures and their differential agencies in navigating and negotiating these relations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Resolution helps map diverse experiences and struggles of living with data and captures tensions between organizations as observers and users observed through data.

“Resolution also helps map diverse experiences and struggles of living with data.It captures the emerging tensions in relationships between organizations (here, the state) enacting the role of observers and users (here, citizens) who are observed through data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Adopting the lens of seeing like an infrastructure enables researchers to trace this work and to better examine how data and algorithms perpetuate surveillance, precarity, and inequality.

“Learning to see like an infrastructure can help us follow this work and better analyze the emerging conditions of surveillance, precarity, and inequality perpetuated through data and algorithms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Seeing like a State, this work is done for the purpose of control.

“| Why is this work done? | Control | Membership and access |”

• cites [79] 79. Antina von Schnitzler. 2008. Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa*. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 4: 899-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802456821 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The spectrum of resolution embeds multiple meanings of citizenship, each with its own promise and peril; low-resolution citizens face data-driven marginalization while high-resolution citizens often contend with invasion of privacy and surveillance.

“The spectrum of resolution thus embeds multiple meanings of citizenship, each with its own promise and peril.Low-resolution citizens of the kind foregrounded here face challenges of data-driven marginalization while high-resolution citizens must often contend with invasion of privacy and surveillance.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The perspective of Seeing like a State is singular and synoptic.

“| Vantage | Singular and synoptic | Plural and distributed |”

• cites [79] 79. Antina von Schnitzler. 2008. Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa*. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 4: 899-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802456821 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Representing citizens through data necessarily brings up practical and normative concerns about fairness, accountability, and inclusion.

“moral, because using data to represent citizens inevitably raises practical and normative questions of fairness, accountability, and inclusion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The lived experience of resolution is deeply shaped by the democratic or authoritarian nature of the state and the socio-political purpose of its infrastructuring efforts.

“More broadly, the lived experience of resolution is deeply shaped by the (democratic or authoritarian) nature of the state and the socio-political purpose of its infrastructuring efforts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Understanding these mechanisms is important for state bureaucracies because citizen data becomes a foundational resource for delivering government services, and these mechanisms offer citizens a toolkit to understand their data representation and challenges of claiming citizenship rights.

“In the context of state-citizen relations, on the one hand, understanding these mechanisms is important for state bureaucracies as citizen data becomes a foundational resource for delivery of government services.On the other hand, these mechanisms offer a toolkit for citizens to understand how they are represented through data and concomitant challenges of claiming citizenship rights.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In Seeing like an Infrastructure, this work is done for the purpose of membership and access.

“| Why is this work done? | Control | Membership and access |”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Seeing like a State produces legibility.

“| What does it produce? | Legibility | Spectrum of resolution |”

• cites [79] 79. Antina von Schnitzler. 2008. Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa*. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 4: 899-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802456821 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In Seeing like a State, the work of seeing is performed by planners and state officials.

“| Who does this work? | Planners and state officials | Frontline workers and users (here, citizens) |”

• cites [79] 79. Antina von Schnitzler. 2008. Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa*. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 4: 899-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802456821 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

When observed people have broader participation-learning to navigate infrastructure, leaving without losing access, and seeking redress-their data can effectively represent their lives.

“When the observed are afforded a broader scope of participation including, but not limited to, learning to navigate the networked logic of infrastructures, capacity to leave without penalty of losing access to services, and opportunities to speak back and seek redress when faced with harms, their data can effectively represent their lives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Constructing and interpreting a population as data demands labor, organization, and discipline.

“social, because making up and interpreting a population as data requires work, organization, and discipline”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Seeing like an Infrastructure produces a spectrum of resolution.

“| What does it produce? | Legibility | Spectrum of resolution |”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Seeing like a State, this work occurs while administering a state.

“| When is this work done? | In administering a state | In navigating data representations |”

• cites [79] 79. Antina von Schnitzler. 2008. Citizenship Prepaid: Water, Calculability, and Techno-Politics in South Africa*. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 4: 899-917. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802456821 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The perspective of Seeing like an Infrastructure is plural and distributed.

“| Vantage | Singular and synoptic | Plural and distributed |”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Low resolution, when employed strategically and creatively by marginalized communities, can become a powerful resource for resistance.

“Low resolution when employed strategically and creatively by these communities can become a powerful resource for resistance in these contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

As infrastructures become increasingly integral to statecraft, bureaucratic procedures are increasingly driven by data systems studied by CSCW scholars, and state bureaucracies increasingly rely on citizen data to organize services.

“As infrastructures become increasingly integral to statecraft, these procedures in turn are increasingly driven by data systems long studied by CSCW scholars.As state bureaucracies produce and manage more data about citizens, they also increasingly rely on this data to organize their services.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Relations between state and citizens also existed prior to current efforts at infrastructuring data systems.

“However, these relations also existed prior to current efforts at infrastructuring data systems.”