SpecInfer: Accelerating Large Language Model Serving with Tree-based Speculative Inference and Verification
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This paper introduces SpecInfer, a system that accelerates generative large language model (LLM) serving with tree-based speculative inference and verification. The key idea behind SpecInfer is leveraging small speculative models to predict the LLM's outputs; the predictions are organized as a token tree, whose nodes each represent a candidate token sequence. The correctness of all candidate token sequences represented by a token tree is verified against the LLM in parallel using a novel tree-based parallel decoding mechanism. SpecInfer uses an LLM as a token tree verifier instead of an incremental decoder, which significantly reduces the end-to-end latency and computational requirement for serving generative LLMs while provably preserving model quality. Our evaluation shows that SpecInfer outperforms existing LLM serving systems by 1.5-2.8× for distributed LLM inference and by 2.6-3.5× for offloading-based LLM inference, while preserving the same generative performance. SpecInfer is publicly available at https://github.com/flexflow/FlexFlow/
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Existing tree-based works employ static verification trees that lack adaptability by static structures, which cannot dynamically adjust to the changing context of the generated text, leading to suboptimal draft acceptance rates and limited speedup.
“Existing tree-based works (Luo et al. 2025; Miao et al. 2024; Chen et al. 2024) employ static verification trees that lack adaptability by static structures, which cannot dynamically adjust to the changing context of the generated text, leading to suboptimal draft acceptance rates and limited speedup.”
From DIAA: A Decoding-Efficient Inference Acceleration Approach for On-Device Large Language Models (2026) · cites this paper as Miao et al. 2024
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStatic token trees are constructed once using fixed Top-K sampling and remain unchanged.
“However, static token trees, most existing work adopted (Miao et al. 2024; Luo et al. 2025; Chen et al. 2024), are constructed once using fixed Top-K sampling and remain unchanged.”
From DIAA: A Decoding-Efficient Inference Acceleration Approach for On-Device Large Language Models (2026) · cites this paper as Miao et al. 2024
Section 3 (p. 5) says SpecInfer uses a preset, static expansion configuration that fixes how many top-ranked tokens are expanded at each step. But Algorithm 2 (p. 4) says speculation generates a token tree from the current token sequence; the paper does not say a token tree is constructed once and remains unchanged. The static element is the expansion configuration, not the token tree itself. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Towards Efficient LLM Inference via Collective and Adaptive Speculative Decoding
Wang, S., Yang, H., Wang, X., Liu, T., Wang, P., Xu, Y., Liang, X., Ma, K., Feng, T., You, X., et al. (2025) · International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis (SC) · doi:10.1145/3712285.3759834 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Liakopoulos, D., Sinha, P., Hu, T., Lee, M., & Yadwadkar, N. J. (2025) · International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis (SC) · doi:10.1145/3712285.3759867 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Huang, H., Zhan, W., Duan, H., Peng, K., Min, G., Zhao, Z., Zhao, Z., & Ye, Y. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing · doi:10.1109/tmc.2026.3667591 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Adaptive Draft Sequence Length: Enhancing Speculative Decoding Throughput on PIM-Enabled Systems
Wang, R., Wang, Q., Liu, H., Zheng, L., Liao, X., Jin, H., & Xue, J. (2026) · IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) · doi:10.1109/hpca68181.2026.11408598 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
History Doesn't Repeat Itself but Rollouts Rhyme: Accelerating Reinforcement Learning with RhymeRL
He, J., Li, T., Feng, E., Du, D., Liu, Q., Liu, T., Xia, Y., & Chen, H. (2026) · International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) · doi:10.1145/3779212.3790172 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Whisper in Medusa’s Ear: Multi-head Efficient Decoding for Transformer-based ASR
Segal, Y., Shamsian, A., Navon, A., Hetz, G., & Keshet, J. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp49660.2025.10888140 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Preble: Efficient Distributed Prompt Scheduling for LLM Serving
Srivatsa, V., He, Z., Abhyankar, R., Li, D., & Zhang, Y. (2024) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2407.00023 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationDynamicAttention: Dynamic KV Cache for Disaggregate LLM Inference
Ding, Z., & Yang, T. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp49660.2025.10890367 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gao, X., Xie, W., Xiang, Y., & Ji, F. Q. (2025) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v39i22.34566 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Speculative Decoding for Verilog: Speed and Quality, All in One
Xu, C., Liu, Y., Zhou, Y., Huang, S., Xu, N., & Xu, Q. (2025) · ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC) · doi:10.1109/dac63849.2025.11133030 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
GPMassSimulator: A Graphormer-Based Method for Glycopeptide MS/MS Spectra Prediction
Ren, Y., Bu, D., Duan, B., Zhang, C., Cong, B., & Sun, S. (2025) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.5c02375 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ghidorah: Fast LLM Inference on Edge with Speculative Decoding and Hetero-Core Parallelism
Wei, J., Huang, Y., Zhou, Y., Jiang, J., & Du, J. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Computer Design: VLSI in Computers and Processors (ICCD) · doi:10.1109/iccd65941.2025.00043 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
FastCoder: Accelerating Repository-level Code Generation via Efficient Retrieval and Verification
Zhao, Q., Zhang, L., Liu, F., Lian, X., Meng, Q., Jiao, Z., Zhou, Z., Li, J., & Shi, L. (2025) · IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated Software Engineering (ASE) · doi:10.1109/ase63991.2025.00190 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chen, K., Zhou, Z., Chen, Y., & Han, J. H. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems · doi:10.1109/tvlsi.2026.3659893 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Unlocking One-for-All Generative AI at Edge
Miriyala, S. S., Rajendiran, V. N., & Allur, S. K. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-06418-9_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Taming the Long-Tail: Efficient Reasoning RL Training with Adaptive Drafter
Hu, Q., Yang, S. W., Guo, J., Yao, X., Lin, Y., Gu, Y., Cai, H., Gan, C., Klimovic, A., & Han, S. (2026) · International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) · doi:10.1145/3779212.3790231 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Device-Server Collaborative Speculative Decoding for Real-Time LLM Streaming
Biswas, B. R., Guan, Y., Yin, M., Han, T., & Hou, X. (2025) · Globecom · doi:10.1109/globecom59602.2025.11432593 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
SMART: When is It Actually Worth Expanding a Speculative Tree?
Wang, L., & Zhou, P. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-37627-5_13 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Efficient LLM Inference Over Heterogeneous Edge Networks With Speculative Decoding
Zhu, B., Chen, Z., Zhao, L., Shin, H., & Nallanathan, A. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2026.3712530 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationArlo: Serving Transformer-based Language Models with Dynamic Input Lengths
Tan, X. H., Li, J., Yang, Y., Li, J., & Xu, H. L. (2024) · Proceedings of the International Conference on Parallel Processing · doi:10.1145/3673038.3673124 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Enhancing Stateful Processing in Programmable Data Planes: Model and Improved Architecture
Feng, Y., Zhou, H., Liu, S., Chen, Z., Song, H., & Liu, B. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Networking · doi:10.1109/tnet.2024.3510638 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAMUSD: Asynchronous Multi-Device Speculative Decoding for LLM Acceleration
McDanel, B. (2025) · IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems proceedings · doi:10.1109/iscas56072.2025.11043575 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gao, X., Xie, W., Lixin, Fang, X., Hang, C., Li, C., Lin, Y., & Xu, X. (2026) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v40i25.39266
DIAA: A Decoding-Efficient Inference Acceleration Approach for On-Device Large Language Models
Tian, H., Lu, S., Tian, F., Cui, G., Li, Z., Zhang, X., Sheng, Q. Z., & Dou, W. (2026) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v40i31.39789
Confidence-Modulated Speculative Decoding for Large Language Models
Sen, J., Dasgupta, S., & Waghela, H. (2025) · 2025 IEEE 6th India Council International Subsections Conference (INDISCON) · doi:10.1109/indiscon66021.2025.11254640
WWW.Serve: Interconnecting Global LLM Services through Decentralization
Wang, H., Xia, Z., Chen, Z., & Chen, B. (2026) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2603.20661
Self-citationWen, Z., Xu, L., & Wang, M. (2025) · Integrated Circuits and Systems · doi:10.23919/ics.2025.3575371
Improving Speculative Decoding with Dynamic Adjustment and Probability Smoothing
Han, Y. (2025) · International Conference on Advanced Algorithms and Control Engineering (ICAACE) · doi:10.1109/icaace65325.2025.11019425
Masker: Speculative Decoding for Long-Text QA with CopyHead
Zhou, Y., Pan, H., Liu, R., & Zhang, L. (2025) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-6954-7_3
TOPO-X: Co-optimize Flow Scheduling, Topology, and ML Training Parallelism
Hu, Y., Han, T., Zhao, Y., Wu, F., & Li, X. (2025) · International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks (ICCCN) · doi:10.1109/icccn65249.2025.11133974
MTP: A Meaning-Typed Language Abstraction for AI-Integrated Programming
Dantanarayana, J. L., Kang, Y., Sivasothynathan, K., Clarke, C., Li, B., Kashmira, S., Flautner, K., Tang, L., & Mars, J. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages · doi:10.1145/3763092
SuperSpec: Enhanced Verification and Sampling for End-to-End LLM Speculative Decoding
Shen, C., Guo, R., Yang, C., Lin, Y., Zhao, Z., Hu, Y., Chen, S., Liu, X., & Li, K. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications; IEEE International Conference on Smart City; IEEE International Conference on Data Science and Systems (HPCC/SmartCity/DSS) · doi:10.1109/hpcc67675.2025.00064
XY-Serve: End-to-End Versatile Production Serving for Dynamic LLM Workloads
Song, M., Tang, X., Hou, F., Li, J., Wei, W., Ma, Y., Xiao, R., Si, H., Jiang, D., Yin, S., et al. (2025) · International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) · doi:10.1145/3760250.3762228
Efficient Multilingual Translation of Native Indian Languages in GenAI based Product Offer Platform
Awasthi, S. A., Kumar, D., Jhunjhunwala, A., Padmanabhan, K. M., Moorthy, V., Sengodan, G., Srinivasan, S., George, P., Pandey, A., & Pushpalatha, M. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Computing and Communication Technologies (CONECCT) · doi:10.1109/conecct65861.2025.11306851
CoMPI: Coordinated Model Merging and Parallel Inference at Edge
Zeng, S., Zhang, H., & Yan, Z. (2025) · ACM Symposium on Cloud Computing (SoCC) · doi:10.1145/3772052.3772249
KVSpec: Efficient KV-Cache Reuse for Speculative Decoding
Xu, C. L., & Xue, J. (2025) · International Conference on Cloud Computing, Big Data Application and Software Engineering (CBASE) · doi:10.1109/cbase67452.2025.11335478
JanusQuant: Accurate and Efficient 2-bit KV Cache Quantization for Long-Context Inference
Sun, C., Xia, Y., Wang, H., Yang, D., Zhou, X., & Cheng, D. (2026) · ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles and Practice of Parallel Programming · doi:10.1145/3774934.3786428
SEC : Enabling MLLMs for Low-Latency IoT Video Analysis via Semantic-Aware Edge–Cloud Collaboration
Yang, M., Tian, Y., Cong, P., Zhang, L., Xi, G., Wang, S., & Wang, W. (2026) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3669144
Wang, Y., Wang, H., Yang, J., Su, Y., Guo, R., Yue, Z., Gu, J., Wei, S., Hu, Y., & Yin, S. (2026) · Digest of technical papers/Digest of technical papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference · doi:10.1109/isscc49663.2026.11408953
VAR-Turbo: Unlocking the Potential of Visual Autoregressive Models Through Dual Redundancy
Xiang, X., & Tu, F. (2026) · IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) · doi:10.1109/hpca68181.2026.11408607
Towards Resource-Efficient Serverless LLM Inference with SLINFER
Xu, C., Zijun, L. I., Chen, Q., Zhao, H., Tang, X., & Guo, M. (2026) · IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) · doi:10.1109/hpca68181.2026.11408548
SwiftSpec: Disaggregated Speculative Decoding and Fused Kernels for Low-Latency LLM Inference
Zhang, Z., Jiang, Z., Jiang, C., Yu, M., Zheng, S., Lin, H., Liu, X., & Hoffmann, H. (2026) · International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) · doi:10.1145/3779212.3790246
Self-citationASDT: Adaptive Speculative Decoding Tree Based on Token Acceptance Feedback
Song, Y., Xia, H., & Duan, F. (2025) · International Symposium on Artificial Intelligence and Big Data (AIBDF) · doi:10.1109/aibdf67964.2025.11440682
Zheng, L., Hu, Y., Shen, C., Zhao, Z., Shi, B., Zhang, Y., Zhao, L., Li, W., & Li, K. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems · doi:10.1109/tpds.2026.3683867
Experience-Driven Dynamic Exits for LLMs with Reinforcement Learning
Zhu, Y., Pao, H., Hu, N., Guo, W., Zhan, S., Lai, B., Wang, Z., Zeng, Y., & Zheng, H. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp55912.2026.11464968
Self-citationTOKCOINFER: Token-Level Multi-Model Collaboration for Energy-Efficient LLM Inference
Zhang, Y., Zhang, D., Wang, B., & Zhang, S. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp55912.2026.11464816
A survey on edge multimodal large models: Compression, inference acceleration, and applications
Chen, S., Shu, Y., Wang, C., & Chen, J. (2026) · National Science Open · doi:10.1360/nso/20260016
Efficient LLM Serving for Agentic Workflows: A Data Systems Perspective
Wadlom, N., Shen, J., & Lu, Y. (2026) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3802046
CoDec: Prefix-Shared Decoding Kernel for LLMs
Wang, Z., Ning, R., Fang, C., Zhang, Z. J., Lin, X., Ma, S., Zhou, M., Li, X., Wang, Z., Huan, C., et al. (2026) · Proceedings of the ACM on Management of Data · doi:10.1145/3802028
Self-citationRAG Under Load: Analytical and Empirical Modeling of Retrieval–Generation Performance at Scale
GUDIPATI, S. K., AKKISETTI, S. R., & Mohammed, A. R. (2026) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-26211-0_19
Boosting the Performance of Tree-Based Speculative Decoding of LLMs on FPGAs
Liu, T., Li, G., Mo, Z., Zhu, Z. G., Pei, M., & Cheng, J. (2026) · Design, Automation, and Test in Europe · doi:10.23919/date69613.2026.11539704
Reliable LLM-Based Edge-Cloud-Expert Cascades for Telecom Knowledge Systems
Hou, Q., Park, S., Zecchin, M., Cai, Y., Yu, G., Simeone, O., & Melodia, T. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2026.3700473
Yu, J., Taneja, A., Lin, J., & Zhang, M. (2026) · ISC High Performance (ISC) · doi:10.23919/isc.2026.11520495
Ahmed, A. M., Sadiq, A. T., Farhan, A. K., Ahmad, M., & Shakeel, M. R. (2026) · Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering · doi:10.1007/s11831-026-10656-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
MemSpec: Memory-Aware Runtime for Adaptive Draft Scheduling in Speculative Decoding on Edge Devices
Kim, E., Jeon, Y. J., & Han, M. (2026) · ACM SIGPLAN/SIGBED Conference on Languages, Compilers, and Tools for Embedded Systems (LCTES) · doi:10.1145/3814943.3816174
Pacer: Blockwise Pre-Verification for Speculative Decoding With Adaptive Length
Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Zhu, Z. G., Wang, H., Ma, D., Zhang, D., Chen, L., & Yu, K. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Audio Speech and Language Processing · doi:10.1109/taslpro.2026.3705693
EdgeSpec: Distributed Speculative Decoding for Large Language Models at Edge
Chen, Y., Tian, M., Qiu, C., Wang, X. L., Yao, H., He, Y., & Liu, Y. (2026) · IEEE Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM) · doi:10.1109/infocom59046.2026.11571680
CoSine: Enhancing LLM Serving via Collaborative and Decoupled Speculative Inference
Gao, L., Liu, J. J., Zhang, X., Gao, G., & Liao, Y. (2026) · IEEE Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM) · doi:10.1109/infocom59046.2026.11571388
DWI: Efficient On-Device LLM Decoding Through Dynamic Width Selection on Nested Models
Chen, W. P., Deng, Y., Wang, X., Fu, Z., Li, X. F., Cao, T., Liu, Y., & Ren, J. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing · doi:10.1109/tmc.2026.3711495
Collaborative Edge Inference for Large Language Models with Speculative Decoding
Zhu, B., Chen, Z., Zhao, L., Shin, H., & Nallanathan, A. (2026) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc59461.2026.11587792
Self-citationLARK: Layer-Aware Routing with K-Ary Dynamic Pruning Tree for Self-speculative Decoding
Xu, B., Zhang, Z., Huang, Z., & Zhang, L. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-92-2759-4_26
Self-citation
- Authors
- Miao, X., Oliaro, G., Zhang, Z., Cheng, X., Wang, Z., Zhang, Z., Wong, R. Y. Y., Zhu, A., Yang, L., Shi, X., Shi, C., Chen, Z., Arfeen, D., Abhyankar, R., & Jia, Z.
- Affiliations
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University (CN)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 29th ACM International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems, Volume 3
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2024-04-27
- Pages
- 932-949
- OpenAlex
- W4395112660
- Cited by
- 114
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 33.35
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (cc-by)
- Funders
- NSF (CNS-2147909, CNS-2211882, CNS-2239351)
- Amazon Research Award
- Cisco Research Award
- Google Faculty Research Award
- Meta Research Award
- Oracle Research Award
- Qualcomm Innovation Fellowship
- Samsung GRO Research Award
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Natural Language Processing Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Topic Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Hardware and Architecture › Parallel Computing and Optimization Techniques
- Keywords
- large language model serving, parallel decoding, inference latency reduction, distributed inference, inference offloading
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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