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The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A Quantitative Nosology Based on Consensus of Evidence
Open accessAbstract
Traditional diagnostic systems went beyond empirical evidence on the structure of mental health. Consequently, these diagnoses do not depict psychopathology accurately, and their validity in research and utility in clinicalpractice are therefore limited. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) consortium proposed a model based on structural evidence. It addresses problems of diagnostic heterogeneity, comorbidity, and unreliability. We review the HiTOP model, supporting evidence, and conceptualization of psychopathology in this hierarchical dimensional framework. The system is not yet comprehensive, and we describe the processes for improving and expanding it. We summarize data on the ability of HiTOP to predict and explain etiology (genetic, environmental, and neurobiological), risk factors, outcomes, and treatment response. We describe progress in the development of HiTOP-based measures and in clinical implementation of the system. Finally, we review outstanding challenges and the research agenda. HiTOP is of practical utility already, and its ongoing development will produce a transformative map of psychopathology.
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“Interestingly, this is in line with the proposed Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) system, where symptoms of mania are thought to associate with obsessive-compulsive symptoms like checking, ordering, and cleaning (Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
From Using network analysis to examine connections between Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) processes, internalizing symptoms, and well-being in a sample of undergraduates (2023) · cites this paper as Kotov et al., 2021
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Self-citationYoung Adult Mental Health Beyond the COVID-19 Era: Can Enlightened Policy Promote Long-Term Change?
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“Future research may look to use dimensional symptom measures of schizophrenia, or even thought disorders more broadly (e.g. see Kotov et al. 2021) when examining the multidimensional hypothesis, to account for the limitations of the nosologically approach to diagnosis generally.”
Which Anxious Adolescents Were Most Affected by the COVID-19 Pandemic?
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“There has been a growing consensus, however, that the lack of progress to date may be a result of the well-documented shortcomings of the categorical diagnostic system (Kotov et al., 2021; Latzman et al., 2020) – the categorical system is scientifically untenable.”
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“…disorders) (Caspi et al., 2014; Lahey et al., 2012) and (2) a Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology [HiTOP] model, which is a multi-layered model including a wider array of domains beyond mental health, such as personality, social skills, and physical health symptoms (Kotov et al., 2021).”
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“Contemporary conceptual frameworks of psychopathology, such as the Hierarchical Taxonomy Of Psychopathology (HiTOP) model [48, 49], emphasize associations between different types of symptomatology.”
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“Moreover, the DSM-5-TR’s reliance on discrete diagnostic categories does not reflect the continuous nature of mental disorder symptoms, resulting in information loss and potentially inadequate treatment strategies (Kotov et al. 2021).”
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Self-citationHierarchical Symptom Components in Early Psychosis
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“In line with recent research calling for lower-order precision level analyses (Goulter et al., 2022; Kotov et al., 2021), we assessed CU traits at the item-level.”
ResultThe future of neuroscience in developmental psychopathology
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“…aims to identify common behavioral and biological dimensions of mental disorders 14 – 16 , or the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP), which systematically describes and organizes psychopathological dimensions at different hierarchical levels 17,18 , may help overcome these issues.”
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“…Initiative (RDoC) and The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) argue that mental disorders are better understood as variations along dimensions based on observable behavioral and neurobiological measures (Cuthbert, 2015; Glahn et al., 2016; Kotov et al., 2021; Kozak and Cuthbert, 2016).”
BackgroundMartinez, K. A., Ryu, E., Patrick, C. J., Temkin, N. R., Stein, M. B., Magnus, B. E., McCrea, M., Manley, G. T., Nelson, L. D., & the TRACK-TBI Investigators (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724001211 · Cited by 12
“However, our use of empirically derived, transdiagnostic symptom dimensions may have advantages, as they may reflect more precise, homogeneous constructs than traditional heterogenous psychiatric diagnostic categories (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013; Insel et al., 2010; Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
BackgroundMethodEstimating adolescent mental health in the general population: current challenges and opportunities
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“A project by Kotov et al. (2021) is already investigating the correlation between certain structures of personality and specific psychopathology.”
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“This fits with the personality–psychopathology spectrum approach that underlies new quantitative approaches to reconceptualizing psychopathology like HiTOP [1], in which maladaptive trait function is well represented by the internalizing–externalizing dimensions of psychopathology.”
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“Performing analyses from a dimensional perspective are following state-of-the-art dimensional approaches to psychopathology, such as the Research Domain Criteria (Cuthbert, 2020; Sanislow, 2020), or the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (Kotov et al., 2021; Michelini et al., 2021), that contrasts the dimensiona…”
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“We chose this model because many psychological constructs are hierarchical in nature (e.g., Kotov et al., 2021; McGrew, 2009; Moshagen et al., 2018) and bifactor models allow for a representation of this hierarchy without imposing proportionality constraints as in higher order models (Brunner et…”
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“In contrast, the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) aims to provide clinical applications based on a dimensional approach of psychiatric symptoms [8, 9].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Relationship Between Emotion Dysregulation and Error Monitoring in Adolescents with ADHD
Figuracion, M. T., Kozlowski, M. B., Macknyk, K. S., Heise, M. B., Pieper, S. M., Alperin, B. R., Morton, H. E., Nigg, J. T., & Karalunas, S. L. (2024) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01127-z · Cited by 11
“…models of psychopathology, including RDoC, increasingly emphasize the need to consider features outside of traditional DSM domains, including specific efforts to integrate the broad DSM framework with personality/temperament features (Hankin et al., 2017; Kotov et al., 2017, 2021).”
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“For instance, hierarchical nosologies such as the hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology (HiTOP) more ef fi ciently capture variance in psychopathology compared to DSM diagnoses (Kotov et al., 2021).”
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Beyond the factor indeterminacy problem using genome-wide association data
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“Some recent frameworks (for example, HiTOP 13 ) have made latent variable models of psychopathology explicit by positing super-and sub-factors that collectively influence symptoms and traits 13 .”
Organizational culture archetypes and firm performance
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The Affective Side of Disruptive Behavior: Toward Better Understanding, Assessment, and Treatment
Evans, S. C., & Burke, J. D. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2024.2333008 · Cited by 17
“The simultaneously dimensional and categorical nature of psychopathology has long been appreciated (Rutter, 2011); it also aligns with current initiatives like RDOC (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013) and HITOP (Kotov et al., 2021)—not as a replacement to diagnoses, but as complementary frameworks, serving different purposes, an…”
BackgroundInfluentialHeart rate variability and psychological health: The key role of trait emotional awareness
Quirin, M., Malekzad, F., Jais, M., Kehr, H. M., & Ennis, M. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104252 · Cited by 10
Kajanoja, J., & Valtonen, J. (2024) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000538458 · Cited by 9
“Recent discussions of psychiatric diagnoses have both identi fi ed limitations in current classi fi cation systems [1 – 6] and offered proposals for alternative approaches [7 – 12].”
Bean, C. A. L., Mueller, S. B., Abitante, G., Ciesla, J. A., Cho, S., & Cole, D. A. (2024) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-024-10155-y · Cited by 10
“Second, there has been increasing interest in moving away from categorical diagnostic approaches to mental disorders in favor of alternate nosological approaches that emphasize the use of transdiagnostic dimensions such as HiTOP (Kotov et al., 2021) and RDoC (Cuthbert, 2014).”
BackgroundCorrell, C. U., Dombi, Z. B., Barabássy, Á., Németh, G., Brevig, T., & McIntyre, R. S. (2024) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2024.07.012 · Cited by 10
“…and Statistical Manual (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD) (WHO, 2021), and the principles from the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) (Kotov et al., 2021) and Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) (Cuthbert and Insel, 2013).”
BackgroundMarek, R. J., & Heinberg, L. J. (2024) · Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.soard.2024.08.001 · Cited by 12
The Transition From Homogeneous to Heterogeneous Machine Learning in Neuropsychiatric Research
Zhao, Q., Nooner, K. B., Tapert, S. F., Adeli, E., Pohl, K. M., Kuceyeski, A. F., & Sabuncu, M. R. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2024.100397 · Cited by 11
“Beyond multidi-mensionality, the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology consortium (38) identi fi es categorical hierarchically organized levels of diagnosis from the p factor model (39).”
Edwards, E. R., Greene, A. L., Epshteyn, G., Gromatsky, M. A., Kinney, A. R., & Holliday, R. P. (2022) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548221121142 · Cited by 10
“…by depressive, anxiety, and trauma-related disorders; externalizing by substance use and disruptive behavior disorders; and thought disorder by bipolar and depressive disorders with psychosis, cluster A personality disorders, and schizophrenia spectrum conditions (kotov et al., 2020; 2021).”
BackgroundQuantifying Severity of Preschool-Aged Children’s Internalizing Behaviors: A Daily Diary Analysis
Bufferd, S. J., Olino, T. M., & Dougherty, L. R. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911211046661 · Cited by 10
“…as well as the overlap between normative emotional phenomena/personality and psychopathology identified by both structural (Achenbach, 2020; Kotov et al., 2021; Lahey et al., 2017; Olino et al., 2014) and genomic (Levey et al., 2020; Martin et al., 2018; Smoller et al., 2019; Wray et al.,…”
BackgroundRodriguez-Seijas, C. A., Rogers, B. G., Harkness, A., Safren, S. A., & Pachankis, J. E. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026231158062 · Cited by 14
“Therefore, these findings hold particular importance for transdiagnostic models of psychopathology such as the HiTOP (see Kotov et al., 2017, 2021), which seeks “to articulate a fully empirical classification of psycho-pathology” (Kotov et al., 2017, p. 85; Kotov et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSomma, A., Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Gialdi, G., Leva, N. D., Falcone, E., Villa, M., Frau, C., & Fossati, A. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115100 · Cited by 10
Self-citationGrummitt, L. R., Kelly, E. V., Newton, N. C., Stapinski, L. A., Lawler, S., Prior, K., & Barrett, E. L. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106534 · Cited by 15
Piqueras, J. A., Falcó, R., Rico‐Bordera, P., Canals, J., Fernández, L. E., Vivas-Fernández, M., López, L. J. G., on behalf of PROCARE team, Díaz-Castela, M. D. M., Jiménez-Vázquez, D., et al. (2024) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01689-z · Cited by 9
“Thus, worry about mistakes and self-esteem were the only risk and protective factors, respectively, identified as statistically significant in these disorders [33].”
Stevanović, D., Ćirović, N., & Knez, R. (2024) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-024-00471-0 · Cited by 9
“It gives insights into its ability to predict and explain etiology, risk factors, outcomes, and treatment response, by accounting for genetic, environmental, and neurobiological factors [18].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDoyle, A. E., Bearden, C. E., Gur, R. E., Ledbetter, D. H., Martin, C. L., McCoy, T. H., Paşaniuc, B., Perlis, R. H., Smoller, J. W., & Davis, L. K. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.10.006 · Cited by 11
Measuring Psychopathology in Daily Life
Wright, A. G. C., Ringwald, W. R., & Zimmermann, J. (2025) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026241291549 · Cited by 19
Self-citationSilver, J., Carlson, G. A., Farquharson, W. H., Atlas, J. A., & Klein, D. N. (2025) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-025-01318-w · Cited by 10
“Thus, it is possible that this association is primarily driven by inattentiveness, which shows weaker correlations with externalizing conditions than hyperactive-impulsive symptoms do (Kotov et al., 2021).”
Verona, E. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911211048240 · Cited by 8
“…of psychopathology (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1984; Krueger, 1999), the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP; e.g., Kotov et al., 2017; Kotov et al., 2021; Ruggero et al., 2019) was developed to broaden the research and clinical utility of alternative approaches to classification,…”
BackgroundHartmann, J., Bräscher, A., Forbush, K. T., Sellbom, M., Watson, D., & Witthöft, M. (2022) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000001105 · Cited by 10
“, dimensional clusters of syndromes) (21,26).”
BackgroundSelf-citationJeong, H., Hapenciuc, G., Meza, E., Le, J. T., Heinberg, L. J., & Marek, R. J. (2023) · Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.soard.2023.02.014 · Cited by 9
Attackenangst bei Migräne: Diagnostik und Behandlung
Klan, T., Diezemann, A., Guth, A., Gaul, C., & Witthöft, M. (2023) · Der Schmerz · doi:10.1007/s00482-023-00711-y · Cited by 9
“Neuere nosologische Ansätze in der psychologischen Forschung postulieren zudem eine dimensionale Herangehens-weise bei der Beschreibung von psychi-schen Störungen („HiTOP-Modell“; [21]).”
Lynch, S. J., Chapman, C., Sunderland, M., Slade, T. N., Teesson, M., Conrod, P., & Newton, N. C. (2023) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107595 · Cited by 10
Lee, J., & Choi, H. (2023) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-023-00242-z · Cited by 9
“Therefore, in the present work, we focused on attachment styles and pathological personality traits based on the dimensional perspective of psychopathology [e.g., 17, 18] in people who have experienced childhood abuse.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialStructure of psychopathology in adolescents and its association with high-risk personality traits
Lynch, S. J., Sunderland, M., Forbes, M. K., Teesson, M., Newton, N. C., & Chapman, C. (2023) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422001262 · Cited by 9
“There is also evidence that these dimensions may be partitioned into even narrower dimensions (Krueger et al., 2021; Watson et al., 2022).”
Self-citationSnorrason, Í., Kuckertz, J. M., Swisher, V. S., Pendo, K., Rissman, A. J., & Ricketts, E. J. (2023) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2023.102743 · Cited by 9
DeYoung, C. G., Blain, S. D., Latzman, R. D., Grazioplene, R. G., Haltigan, J. D., Kotov, R., Michelini, G., Venables, N. C., Docherty, A. R., Goghari, V. M., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/yatw7 · Cited by 9
Self-citationA critical evaluation of the p-factor literaturePreprint
Watts, A. L., Greene, A. L., Bonifay, W. E., & Fried, E. I. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7yrnp · Cited by 10
Zheng, Y., & Goulter, N. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01154-w · Cited by 8
“Congruent with recent conceptualizations of psychopathology (i.e., Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology; Kotov et al., 2021), we stress the importance of continued intensive longitudinal research examining externalizing psychopathology across spectra, subfactors, syndromes/disorders, and individual signs, symptoms…”
Basterfield, C., Fitzsimmons‐Craft, E. E., Taylor, C. B., Eisenberg, D., Wilfley, D. E., & Newman, M. G. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.058 · Cited by 8
Csukly, G., Tombor, L., Hidasi, Z., Csibri, É., Fullajtár, M., Huszár, Z., Koszovácz, V., Lányi, O., Vass, E., Koleszár, B., et al. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-02891-2 · Cited by 8
The Basic Needs in Games Model of Video Game Play and Mental Health
Ballou, N., & Deterding, S. (2024) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwae042 · Cited by 16
Metadata
- Authors
- Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Cicero, D. C., Conway, C. C., DeYoung, C. G., Eaton, N. R., Forbes, M. K., Hallquist, M. N., Latzman, R. D., Mullins-Sweatt, S. N., Ruggero, C. J., Simms, L. J., Waldman, I. D., Waszczuk, M. A., & Wright, A. G. C.
- Affiliations
- Stony Brook University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of Notre Dame (US)
- University of North Texas (US)
- Fordham University (US)
- Macquarie University (AU)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Georgia State University (US)
- Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, USA
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- Emory University (US)
- Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kotov, Roman
- ORCID
- Venue
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2021-05-07
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 83-108
- ISSN
- 1548-5943 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-5951
- OpenAlex
- W3127024923
- Cited by
- 596
- References
- 138
- Citations by year
- 2026: 101 · 2025: 108 · 2024: 146 · 2023: 110 · 2022: 87 · 2021: 42
- FWCI
- 15.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R56MH122537)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
- Keywords
- Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology, disease classification, dimensional models of psychopathology, diagnostic heterogeneity, comorbidities, diagnostic reliability, etiology of mental disorders, risk factors, treatment response, clinical implementation
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Humans, Mental Health, Psychopathology, Comorbidity, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Consensus
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