Cited by 271Astro and Planetary SciencePlanetary Science and ExplorationHistory and Developments in Astronomy

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 121 of the 121 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Late Heavy Bombardment

Bottke, William F., Norman, Marc D.·2017·Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences

DOI 10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020131

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Heavily cratered surfaces on the Moon, Mars, and Mercury show that the terrestrial planets were battered by an intense bombardment during their first billion years or more, but the timing, sources, and dynamical implications of these impacts are controversial. The Late Heavy Bombardment refers to impact events that occurred after stabilization of the planetary lithospheres such that they could be preserved as craters and basins. Lunar melt rocks and meteorite shock ages point toward a discrete episode of elevated impact flux between ∼3.5 and ∼4.0–4.2 Ga, and a relative quiescence between ∼4.0–4.2 and ∼4.4 Ga. Evidence from Precambrian impact spherule layers suggests that a long-lived tail of terrestrial impactors lasted to ∼2.0–2.5 Ga. Dynamical models that include populations residual from primary accretion and destabilized by giant planet migration can potentially account for the available observations, although all have pros and cons. The most parsimonious solution to match constraints is a hybrid model with discrete early, post-accretion and later, planetary instability–driven populations of impactors.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020131

Cites

121 of 121 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Impact cratering—A geologic process
LIPSCHUTZ, M. E. (1989) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90150-6 · Cited by 2,279
Origin of the cataclysmic Late Heavy Bombardment period of the terrestrial planets
Gomes, R., Levison, H. F., Tsiganis, K., & Morbidelli, A. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03676 · Cited by 1,737
Origin of the orbital architecture of the giant planets of the Solar System
Tsiganis, K., Gomes, R., Morbidelli, A., & Levison, H. F. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03539 · Cited by 1,476
A low mass for Mars from Jupiter’s early gas-driven migration
Walsh, K. J., Morbidelli, A., Raymond, S. N., O'Brien, D. P., & Mandell, A. M. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10201 · Cited by 1,241
The geologic history of the Moon
Wilhelms, D. E., McCauley, J. F., & Trask, N. J. (1987) · USGS professional paper · doi:10.3133/pp1348 · Cited by 1,128
Major lunar crustal terranes: Surface expressions and crust‐mantle origins
Jolliff, B. L., Gillis‐Davis, J. J., HASKIN, L. A., Korotev, R. L., & Wieczorek, M. A. (2000) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/1999je001103 · Cited by 939
Isotopic evidence for a terminal lunar cataclysm
Tera, F., Papanastassiou, D. A., & Wasserburg, G. J. (1974) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/0012-821x(74)90059-4 · Cited by 753
Cratering Records in the Inner Solar System in Relation to the Lunar Reference System
Neukum, G., Ivanov, B. A., & HARTMANN, W. K. (2001) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1023/a:1011989004263 · Cited by 709
Rapid emergence of life shown by discovery of 3,700-million-year-old microbial structures
Nutman, A. P., Bennett, V. C., Friend, C. R. L., Kranendonk, M. J. V., & Chivas, A. R. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature19355 · Cited by 608
The Constitution and Structure of the Lunar Interior
Wieczorek, M. A. (2006) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 · Cited by 587
The fossilized size distribution of the main asteroid belt
Bottke, W., Durda, D., Nesvorný, D., Jedicke, R., Morbidelli, A., Vokrouhlický, D., & Levison, H. (2003) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.026 · Cited by 552
Geologic map of Mars
Tanaka, K. L., Skinner, J. A., Dohm, J. M., Irwin, R. P., Kolb, E. J., Fortezzo, C. M., Platz, T., Michael, G., & Hare, T. M. (2014) · Scientific investigations map · doi:10.3133/sim3292 · Cited by 540
Some dynamical aspects of the accretion of Uranus and Neptune: The exchange of orbital angular momentum with planetesimals
Fernández, J. A., & Ip, W.-H. (1984) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/0019-1035(84)90101-5 · Cited by 506
The origin of Pluto's peculiar orbit
Malhotra, R. (1993) · Nature · doi:10.1038/365819a0 · Cited by 496
The Hadean Crust: Evidence from >4 Ga Zircons
Harrison, T. M. (2009) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100151 · Cited by 445
Asteroids Were Born Big
Morbidelli, A., Bottke, W., Nesvorný, D., & Levison, H. (2009) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.07.011 · Cited by 442
Self-citation
The Origin of Planetary Impactors in the Inner Solar System
STROM, R. G., Malhotra, R., Itô, T., Yoshida, F., & KRING, D. A. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1113544 · Cited by 418
Cratering History and Lunar Chronology
Stöffler, D. (2006) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.05 · Cited by 393
An Archaean heavy bombardment from a destabilized extension of the asteroid belt
Bottke, W. F., Vokrouhlický, D., Minton, D. A., Nesvorný, D., Morbidelli, A., Brasser, R., Simonson, B. M., & Levison, H. F. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10967 · Cited by 392
Self-citation
STATISTICAL STUDY OF THE EARLY SOLAR SYSTEM'S INSTABILITY WITH FOUR, FIVE, AND SIX GIANT PLANETS
Nesvorný, D., & Morbidelli, A. (2012) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-6256/144/4/117 · Cited by 381
Emergence of a Habitable Planet
Zahnle, K., Arndt, N., Cockell, C., Halliday, A., Nisbet, E., Selsis, F., & Sleep, N. H. (2007) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-007-9225-z · Cited by 380
The Borealis basin and the origin of the martian crustal dichotomy
Andrews‐Hanna, J. C., Zuber, M. T., & Banerdt, W. B. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07011 · Cited by 368
The Geology of Multi-Ring Impact Basins
Spudis, P. D. (1993) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511564581 · Cited by 367
Origin and age of the earliest Martian crust from meteorite NWA 7533
Humayun, M., Nemchin, A. A., Zanda, B., Hewins, R. H., Grange, M. L., Kennedy, A., Lorand, J.-P., Göpel, C., Fiéni, C., du Pont, S. C., et al. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12764 · Cited by 326
Global Distribution of Large Lunar Craters: Implications for Resurfacing and Impactor Populations
Head, J. W., Fassett, C. I., Kadish, S. J., Smith, D. E., Zuber, M. T., Neumann, G. A., & Mazarico, E. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1195050 · Cited by 302
The formation of Uranus and Neptune in the Jupiter–Saturn region of the Solar System
Thommes, E. W., Duncan, M. J., & Levison, H. F. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/45185 · Cited by 295
Contamination of the asteroid belt by primordial trans-Neptunian objects
Levison, H. F., Bottke, W. F., Gounelle, M., Morbidelli, A., Nesvorný, D., & Tsiganis, K. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08094 · Cited by 292
Self-citation
Impact ages of meteorites: A synthesis
Bogard, D. D. (1995) · Meteoritics · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1995.tb01124.x · Cited by 287
Widespread mixing and burial of Earth’s Hadean crust by asteroid impacts
Marchi, S., Bottke, W. F., Elkins-Tanton, L. T., Bierhaus, M., Wuennemann, K., Morbidelli, A., & Kring, D. A. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13539 · Cited by 277
Self-citation
A sawtooth-like timeline for the first billion years of lunar bombardment
Morbidelli, A., Marchi, S., Bottke, W. F., & KRING, D. A. (2012) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.07.037 · Cited by 274
Self-citation
Microbial habitability of the Hadean Earth during the late heavy bombardment
Abramov, O., & Mojzsis, S. J. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08015 · Cited by 269
Mega-impact formation of the Mars hemispheric dichotomy
Marinova, M. M., Aharonson, O., & Asphaug, E. I. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07070 · Cited by 267
Lunar impact basins revealed by Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory measurements
Neumann, G. A., Zuber, M. T., Wieczorek, M. A., Head, J. W., III, Baker, D. M., Solomon, S. C., Smith, D. E., Lemoine, F. G., Mazarico, E., Sabaka, T. J., et al. (2015) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500852 · Cited by 265
The Time-Dependent Intense Bombardment of the Primordial Earth/Moon System
HARTMANN, W. K., Ryder, G., Luke Dones, B., & Grinspoon, D. H. (2000) · University of Arizona Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv1v7zdrp.31 · Cited by 264
Mass flux in the ancient Earth‐Moon system and benign implications for the origin of life on Earth
Ryder, G. (2002) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2001je001583 · Cited by 251
A Younger Age for ALH84001 and Its Geochemical Link to Shergottite Sources in Mars
Lapen, T. J., Righter, M., Brandon, A. D., Debaille, V., Beard, B. L., Shafer, J. T., & Peslier, A. H. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1185395 · Cited by 231
New Views of Lunar Geoscience: An Introduction and Overview
Hiesinger, H. (2006) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.1 · Cited by 223
Lunar samples, lunar accretion and the early bombardment of the Moon
Ryder, G. (1990) · Eos · doi:10.1029/90eo00086 · Cited by 220
Hafnium isotopes in Jack Hills zircons and the formation of the Hadean crust
Janne Blichert-toft, B., & Albarède, F. (2007) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.10.054 · Cited by 208
SPHERULE LAYERS—RECORDS OF ANCIENT IMPACTS
Simonson, B. M., & Glass, B. P. (2004) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120458 · Cited by 196
Lunar impact basins: Stratigraphy, sequence and ages from superposed impact crater populations measured from Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) data
Fassett, C. I., Head, J. W., III, Kadish, S. J., Mazarico, E., Neumann, G. A., Smith, D. E., & Zuber, M. T. (2011) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2011je003951 · Cited by 190
Implications of an impact origin for the martian hemispheric dichotomy
Nimmo, F., Hart, S. D., Korycansky, D. G., & Agnor, C. B. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07025 · Cited by 190
The Imbrium impact event and the thorium distribution at the lunar highlands surface
HASKIN, L. A. (1998) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/97je03035 · Cited by 182
Could the Lunar “Late Heavy Bombardment” Have Been Triggered by the Formation of Uranus and Neptune?
Levison, H., Dones, L., Chapman, C., Stern, S., Duncan, M., & Zahnle, K. (2001) · Icarus · doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6608 · Cited by 181
Mass-spectrometric mining of Hadean zircons by automated SHRIMP multi-collector and single-collector U/Pb zircon age dating: The first 100,000 grains
Holden, P. N., Lanc, P., Ireland, T. R., Harrison, T. M., Foster, J. J., & Bruce, Z. (2009) · International Journal of Mass Spectrometry · doi:10.1016/j.ijms.2009.06.007 · Cited by 178
A review of lunar chronology revealing a preponderance of 4.34–4.37 Ga ages
BORG, L. E., Gaffney, A. M., & Shearer, C. K. (2014) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/maps.12373 · Cited by 169
Pinpointing the Source of a Lunar Meteorite: Implications for the Evolution of the Moon
Gnos, E., Hofmann, B. A., Al‐Kathiri, A., Lorenzetti, S., Eugster, O., Whitehouse, M. J., Villa, I. M., Jull, A. J. T., Eikenberg, J., SPETTEL, B., et al. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1099397 · Cited by 158
Large impact crater histories of Mars: The effect of different model crater age techniques
Robbins, S. J., Hynek, B. M., Lillis, R. J., & Bottke, W. F. (2013) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.03.019 · Cited by 151
Self-citation
New crater calibrations for the lunar crater-age chronology
Robbins, S. J. (2014) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.06.038 · Cited by 150
Impact spherules as a record of an ancient heavy bombardment of Earth
Johnson, B. C., & Melosh, H. J. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10982 · Cited by 147
NEPTUNE’S ORBITAL MIGRATION WAS GRAINY, NOT SMOOTH
Nesvorný, D., & Vokrouhlický, D. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/825/2/94 · Cited by 144
K–Ar ages of meteorites: Clues to parent-body thermal histories
Bogard, D. D. (2011) · Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.chemer.2011.03.001 · Cited by 143
ASTEROID FAMILY IDENTIFICATION USING THE HIERARCHICAL CLUSTERING METHOD AND WISE /NEOWISE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Masiero, J. R., Mainzer, A. K., Bauer, J. M., Grav, T., Nugent, C., & Stevenson, R. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/770/1/7 · Cited by 140
The case for an Imbrium origin of the Apollo thorium‐rich impact‐melt breccias
HASKIN, L. A., Korotev, R. L., Rockow, K. M., & Jolliff, B. L. (1998) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1998.tb01703.x · Cited by 138
Illusory Late Heavy Bombardments
Boehnke, P., & Harrison, T. M. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1611535113 · Cited by 138
Can planetesimals left over from terrestrial planet formation produce the lunar Late Heavy Bombardment?
Bottke, W. F., Levison, H. F., Nesvorný, D., & Luke Dones, B. (2007) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.02.010 · Cited by 136
Self-citation
Asymmetric Distribution of Lunar Impact Basins Caused by Variations in Target Properties
Miljković, K., Wieczorek, M. A., Collins, G. S., Laneuville, M., Neumann, G. A., Melosh, H. J., Solomon, S. C., Phillips, R. J., Smith, D. E., & Zuber, M. T. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1243224 · Cited by 134
High-velocity collisions from the lunar cataclysm recorded in asteroidal meteorites
Marchi, S., Bottke, W. F., Cohen, B. A., Wünnemann, K., KRING, D. A., McSWEEN, H. Y., Jr., Sanctis, M. C. D., O'Brien, D. P., Schenk, P. M., Raymond, C. A., et al. (2013) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo1769 · Cited by 133
Self-citation
Asteroidal source of L chondrite meteorites
David Nesvorný, A., Vokrouhlický, D., Morbidelli, A., & Bottke, W. F. (2008) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.12.016 · Cited by 128
Self-citation
The bombardment history of the Moon as recorded by 40Ar‐39Ar chronology
Fernandes, V. A., Fritz, J., Weiss, B. P., Garrick‐Bethell, I., & Shuster, D. L. (2013) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/maps.12054 · Cited by 128
Argon‐40/argon‐39 age spectra of Apollo 17 highlands breccia samples by laser step heating and the age of the Serenitatis basin
Dalrymple, G. B., & Ryder, G. (1996) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/96je02806 · Cited by 127
Structure and evolution of the lunar Procellarum region as revealed by GRAIL gravity data
Andrews‐Hanna, J. C., Besserer, J., Head, J. W., III, Howett, C. J. A., Kiefer, W. S., Lucey, P. G. G., McGovern, P. J., Melosh, H. J., Neumann, G. A., Phillips, R. J., et al. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13697 · Cited by 127
The onset of the lunar cataclysm as recorded in its ancient crater populations
Marchi, S., Bottke, W. F., KRING, D. A., & Morbidelli, A. (2012) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.01.021 · Cited by 121
Self-citation
ON THE MIGRATION OF JUPITER AND SATURN: CONSTRAINTS FROM LINEAR MODELS OF SECULAR RESONANT COUPLING WITH THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
Agnor, C. B., & Lin, D. N. C. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/745/2/143 · Cited by 118
Analysis of impact crater populations and the geochronology of planetary surfaces in the inner solar system
Fassett, C. I. (2016) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1002/2016je005094 · Cited by 116
Dating the Moon-forming impact event with asteroidal meteorites
Bottke, W. F., Vokrouhlický, D., Marchi, S., Swindle, T. D., SCOTT, E. R. D., Weirich, J. R., & Levison, H. F. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aaa0602 · Cited by 111
Self-citation
Compositional variation in Apollo 16 impact-melt breccias and inferences for the geology and bombardment history of the Central Highlands of the Moon
Korotev, R. L. (1994) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/0016-7037(94)90372-7 · Cited by 105
CAPTURE OF TRANS-NEPTUNIAN PLANETESIMALS IN THE MAIN ASTEROID BELT
Vokrouhlický, D., Bottke, W. F., & Nesvorný, D. (2016) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/2/39 · Cited by 105
Self-citation
A 4.2 billion year old impact basin on the Moon: U–Pb dating of zirconolite and apatite in lunar melt rock 67955
Norman, M., & Nemchin, A. (2014) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.11.040 · Cited by 101
Self-citation
Comparative zircon U–Pb geochronology of impact melt breccias from Apollo 12 and lunar meteorite SaU 169, and implications for the age of the Imbrium impact
Liu, D., Jolliff, B. L., Zeigler, R. A., Korotev, R. L., Wan, Y., Xie, H., Zhang, Y., Dong, C., & Wang, W. (2012) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.12.014 · Cited by 101
Accretion timescale and impact history of Mars deduced from the isotopic systematics of martian meteorites
BORG, L. E., Brennecka, G. A., & Symes, S. J. K. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.12.002 · Cited by 101
The fragility of the terrestrial planets during a giant-planet instability
Kaib, N. A., & Chambers, J. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2554 · Cited by 96
40Ar/39Ar age spectra of Apollo 15 impact melt rocks by laser step‐heating and their bearing on the history of lunar basin formation
Dalrymple, G. B., & Ryder, G. (1993) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/93je01222 · Cited by 95
SPITZER EVIDENCE FOR A LATE-HEAVY BOMBARDMENT AND THE FORMATION OF UREILITES IN η CORVI At ∼1 Gyr
Lisse, C. M., Wyatt, M. C., Chen, C. H., Morlok, A., Watson, D. M., Manoj, P., Sheehan, P., Currie, T. M., Thébault, P., & Sitko, M. L. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/747/2/93 · Cited by 92
Pre-Imbrian craters and basins: ages, compositions and excavation depths of Apollo 16 breccias
Maurer, P., Eberhardt, P., Geiss, J., Grögler, N., Stettler, A., Brown, G. M., Peckett, A., & Krähenbühl, U. (1978) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/0016-7037(78)90257-0 · Cited by 90
Interpreting U–Pb data from primary and secondary features in lunar zircon
Grange, M. L., Pidgeon, R. T., Nemchin, A. A., Timms, N. E., & Meyer, C. E. (2012) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2012.10.013 · Cited by 90
Imbrium provenance for the Apollo 16 Descartes terrain: Argon ages and geochemistry of lunar breccias 67016 and 67455
Norman, M. D., Duncan, B., & Huard, J. (2009) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2009.10.024 · Cited by 89
Self-citation
Impact bombardment of the terrestrial planets and the early history of the Solar System
Fassett, C. I., & Minton, D. A. (2013) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo1841 · Cited by 89
Identifying impact events within the lunar cataclysm from 40Ar–39Ar ages and compositions of Apollo 16 impact melt rocks
Norman, M. D., Duncan, B., & Huard, J. (2006) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2006.05.021 · Cited by 88
Self-citation
Phosphate ages in Apollo 14 breccias: Resolving multiple impact events with high precision U–Pb SIMS analyses
Snape, J. F., Nemchin, A. A., Grange, M. L., Bellucci, J. J., Thiessen, F., & Whitehouse, M. J. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.11.005 · Cited by 88
The comparative behavior of apatite‐zircon U‐Pb systems in Apollo 14 breccias: Implications for the thermal history of the Fra Mauro Formation
Nemchin, A. A., Pidgeon, R. T., Healy, D., Grange, M. L., Whitehouse, M. J., & Vaughan, J. (2009) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2009.tb01202.x · Cited by 87
40 Ar/ 39 Ar ages of impacts involving ordinary chondrite meteorites
Swindle, T. D., KRING, D. A., & Weirich, J. R. (2013) · Geological Society London Special Publications · doi:10.1144/sp378.6 · Cited by 84
Utopia Basin, Mars: Characterization of topography and morphology and assessment of the origin and evolution of basin internal structure
Thomson, B. J., & Head, J. W., III (2001) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2000je001355 · Cited by 84
The Dynamical Evolution of the Asteroid Belt
Morbidelli, A., Walsh, K. J., O'Brien, D. P., Minton, D. A., & Bottke, W. F. (2015) · University of Arizona Press eBooks · doi:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816532131-ch026 · Cited by 81
Self-citation
Tungsten isotopes in ferroan anorthosites: Implications for the age of the Moon and lifetime of its magma ocean
Touboul, M., Kleine, T., Bourdon, B., Palme, H., & WIELER, R. (2008) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.11.018 · Cited by 78
Geochemistry and40Ar-39Ar geochronology of impact-melt clasts in feldspathic lunar meteorites: Implications for lunar bombardment history
Cohen, B. A., Swindle, T. D., & KRING, D. A. (2005) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00978.x · Cited by 78
Spherule layers, crater scaling laws, and the population of ancient terrestrial impactors
Johnson, B. C., Collins, G. S., Minton, D. A., Bowling, T. J., Simonson, B. M., & Zuber, M. T. (2016) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.023 · Cited by 77
A plausible cause of the late heavy bombardment
Morbidelli, A., Petit, J., Gladman, B., & Chambers, J. (2001) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2001.tb01880.x · Cited by 75
THE EVOLUTION OF ASTEROIDS IN THE JUMPING-JUPITER MIGRATION MODEL
Roig, F., & Nesvorný, D. (2015) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-6256/150/6/186 · Cited by 75
Recently discovered 3.42-3.23 Ga impact layers, Barberton Belt, South Africa: 3.8 Ga detrital zircons, Archean impact history, and tectonic implications
Lowe, D. R., Byerly, G. R., & Kyte, F. T. (2014) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g35743.1 · Cited by 75
The inner solar system cratering record and the evolution of impactor populations
Strom, R. G., Malhotra, R., Xiao, Z.-Y., Ito, T., Yoshida, F., & Ostrach, L. R. (2015) · Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1088/1674-4527/15/3/009 · Cited by 74
The astronomical connection of terrestrial evolution: crustal effects of post-3.8 Ga mega-impact clusters and evidence for major 3.2±0.1 Ga bombardment of the Earth–Moon system
Glikson, A. Y. (2001) · Journal of Geodynamics · doi:10.1016/s0264-3707(01)00029-1 · Cited by 73
Apollo 16 site geology and impact melts: Implications for the geologic history of the lunar highlands
Spudis, P. D. (1984) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/jb089is01p00c95 · Cited by 73
Re-examining the main asteroid belt as the primary source of ancient lunar craters
Minton, D. A., Richardson, J. E., & Fassett, C. I. (2014) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.10.018 · Cited by 69
On the stability of a planet between Mars and the asteroid belt: Implications for the Planet V hypothesis
Chambers, J. (2007) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.01.016 · Cited by 68
Thermal events documented in Hadean zircons by ion microprobe depth profiles
Trail, D., Mojzsis, S. J., & Harrison, T. M. (2007) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2007.06.003 · Cited by 68
A record of impacts preserved in the lunar regolith
Shuster, D. L., Balco, G., Cassata, W. S., Fernandes, V. A., Garrick‐Bethell, I., & Weiss, B. P. (2010) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.016 · Cited by 66
Modeling the Historical Flux of Planetary Impactors
Nesvorný, D., Roig, F., & Bottke, W. F. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/153/3/103 · Cited by 65
Self-citation
Re-examination of the formation ages of the Apollo 16 regolith breccias
Joy, K. H., KRING, D. A., Bogard, D. D., McKay, D. S., & ZOLENSKY, M. E. (2011) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.09.018 · Cited by 64
Lunar meteorites: new insights into the geological history of the Moon
Joy, K. H., & Arai, T. (2013) · Astronomy & Geophysics · doi:10.1093/astrogeo/att121 · Cited by 64
The40Ar/39Ar dating technique applied to planetary sciences and terrestrial impacts
Jourdan, F. (2012) · Australian Journal of Earth Sciences · doi:10.1080/08120099.2012.644404 · Cited by 62
High resolution U‐Pb ages of Ca‐phosphates in Apollo 14 breccias: Implications for the age of the Imbrium impact
Merle, R., Nemchin, A. A., Grange, M. L., Whitehouse, M. J., & Pidgeon, R. T. (2014) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/maps.12395 · Cited by 62
Ages of large lunar impact craters and implications for bombardment during the Moon’s middle age
Kirchoff, M. R., Chapman, C. R., Marchi, S., Curtis, K. M., Enke, B. L., & Bottke, W. F. (2013) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.03.018 · Cited by 60
Self-citation
Heavy Bombardment of the Earth at ~3.85 Ga:
Ryder, G., Koeberl, C., & Mojzsis, S. J. (2000) · University of Arizona Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv1v7zdrp.30 · Cited by 58
Post-Hadean transitions in Jack Hills zircon provenance: A signal of the Late Heavy Bombardment?
Bell, E. A., & Harrison, T. M. (2013) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.001 · Cited by 56
A post-accretionary lull in large impacts on early Mars
Bottke, W. F., & Andrews‐Hanna, J. C. (2017) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo2937 · Cited by 54
Self-citation
The Rb-Sr age of a crystalline rock from Apollo 16
Papanastassiou, D. A., & Wasserburg, G. J. (1972) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/0012-821x(72)90205-1 · Cited by 52
40Ar‐39Ar ages of H‐chondrite impact melt breccias
Swindle, T. D., Isachsen, C. E., Weirich, J. R., & KRING, D. A. (2009) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2009.tb00766.x · Cited by 51
Crystal accumulation in a 4.2 Ga lunar impact melt
Norman, M. D., Taylor, L. A., Shih, C. Y., & Nyquist, L. E. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.09.021 · Cited by 45
Self-citation
A search for thermal excursions from ancient extraterrestrial impacts using Hadean zircon Ti-U-Th-Pb depth profiles
Abbott, S. S., Harrison, T. M., Schmitt, A. K., & Mojzsis, S. J. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1208006109 · Cited by 44
Differentiated impact melt sheets may be a potential source of Hadean detrital zircon
Kenny, G. G., Whitehouse, M. J., & Kamber, B. S. (2016) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g37898.1 · Cited by 41
A laser probe 40Ar/39Ar and INAA investigation of four Apollo granulitic breccias
Hudgins, J. A., SPRAY, J. G., Kelley, S. P., Korotev, R. L., & Sherlock, S. C. (2008) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.08.024 · Cited by 37
Impact history of the HED parent body(ies) clarified by new 40Ar/39Ar analyses of four HED meteorites and one anomalous basaltic achondrite
Kennedy, T., Jourdan, F., Bevan, A. W. R., Gee, M., & Frew, A. (2013) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2013.03.040 · Cited by 35
Pb-Isotopic Systematics of Lunar Highland Rocks (>3.9 Ga): Constraints on Early Lunar Evolution
Premo, W. R., Tatsumoto, M., Misawa, K., Nakamura, N., & Kita, N. I. (1999) · International Geology Review · doi:10.1080/00206819909465134 · Cited by 31
Chronology and sources of lunar impact bombardment
Ćuk, M. (2011) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.031 · Cited by 30
JUMPING JUPITER CAN EXPLAIN MERCURY’S ORBIT
Roig, F., Nesvorný, D., & DeSouza, S. R. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8205/820/2/l30 · Cited by 30
Constraints on the source of lunar cataclysm impactors
Ćuk, M., Gladman, B., & Stewart, S. T. (2009) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.013 · Cited by 27
Mineralogy, geochemistry, and 40Ar–39Ar geochronology of lunar granulitic breccia Northwest Africa 3163 and paired stones: Comparisons with Apollo samples
Hudgins, J. A., Kelley, S. P., Korotev, R. L., & SPRAY, J. G. (2011) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.02.035 · Cited by 25
A Revised, Rated and Dated Inventory of very Large Candidate Impact Basins on Mars
Frey, H. V., & Mannoia, L. M. (2013) · Lunar and Planetary Science Conference · Cited by 8
Dating Melt Rock 63545 By Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd: Age of Imbrium; Spa Dress Rehearsal
Nyquist, L. E., Shih, C. Y., & Reese, Y. (2011) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 5
Debris from Borealis Basin Formation as the Primary Impactor Population of Late Heavy Bombardment
Minton, D. A., Jackson, A. P., Asphaug, E., Fassett, C. I., & Richardson, J. (2015) · Cited by 2

Research works printed but not linked: 16

Borg LE, 2005, J. Geophys. Res. E, 110, E12S03
Bottke WF, Vokrouhlický D, Ghent B, Mazrouei S, Robbins S, Marchi SS. 2016. On asteroid impacts, crater scaling laws, and a proposed younger surface age for Venus. Presented at 47th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., March 22, The Woodlands, TX
Delano JW, 1977, Proc. 8th Lunar Sci. Conf., March 14–18, Houston Texas, 2029
Frey H, 2011, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 477, 53
James OB, 1981, Proc. 12th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., March 16–20, Houston, TX, 209
Jessberger EK, 1974, Proc. 5th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., March 18–22, 1974, Houston, TX, 1419
Jessberger EK, 1977, Proc. 8th Lunar Sci. Conf., March 14–18, Houston, TX, 2567
Muehlberger WR, 1980, Proc. Conf. Lunar Highlands Crust, November 14–16, Houston, TX, 1
Parker A, 2015, Crater implications for planet origin
Schaeffer GA, Schaeffer OA. 1977. 39Ar-40Ar ages of lunar rocks. Proc. 8th Lunar Sci. Conf., March 14–18, Houston, TX, ed. RB Merril, pp. 2253–300. New York: Pergamon
Schaeffer OA, 1974, Proc. 5th Lunar Sci. Conf., March 18–22, Houston, TX, 1541
Spudis PD, 2011, J. Geophys. Res. E, 116, E00H03
Taylor GJ, 1991, Lunar Sourcebook, 183
Turner G, 1979, Proc. 10th Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., March 19–23, Houston, TX, 1917
Vaniman DT, 1980, Proc. Conf. Lunar Highlands Crust, November 14–16, Houston, TX, 271
Wetherill GW, 1975, Proc. 6th Lunar Sci. Conf., March 17–21, Houston, TX, 1539

Sorted by citations

Lunar impact crater identification and age estimation with Chang’E data by deep and transfer learning
Yang, C., Zhao, H., Bruzzone, L., Benediktsson, J. A., Liang, Y., Liu, B., Zeng, X., Guan, R., Li, C., & Ouyang, Z. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-20215-y · Cited by 1,069
The Archean atmosphere
Catling, D. C., & Zahnle, K. J. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aax1420 · Cited by 568
“5 Ga ago, based on the ages of lunar rocks and meteorite shocks (24), althoughmany dispute that the LHBwas a discrete event (25).”
Background
Secular change and the onset of plate tectonics on Earth
Palin, R. M., Santosh, M., Cao, W., Li, S.-S., Hernández-Uribe, D., & Parsons, A. (2020) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103172 · Cited by 355
Dynamical Evolution of the Early Solar System
Nesvorný, D. (2018) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-052028 · Cited by 319
The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system
Moody, E. R. R., Álvarez-Carretero, S., Mahendrarajah, T., Clark, J., Betts, H. C., Dombrowski, N., Szánthó, L. L., Boyle, R. A., Daines, S. J., Chen, X., et al. (2024) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1 · Cited by 285

See all 271

Authors: Bottke, W. F., & Norman, M. D.
Affiliations: Southwest Research Institute (US)
Australian National University (AU)
ORCID: Bottke, William F.
Norman, Marc D.
Venue: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2017-08-30
Volume: 45
Issue: 1
Pages: 619-647
ISSN: 0084-6597 (ISSN-L)
1545-4495
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-earth-063016-020131
OpenAlex: W2519748279
Cited by: 271
References: 121
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 8
FWCI: 1.98
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.annualreviews.org/licenses/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences (publishedVersion)
ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Astro and Planetary Science
Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Space and Planetary Science › Planetary Science and Exploration
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › History and Developments in Astronomy
Keywords: Late Heavy Bombardment, impact history, impact craters, giant planet migration, impactor population, terrestrial planets, Moon, Mars, mercury, impact flux

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The Late Heavy Bombardment

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks