Wealth Inequality and Accumulation

In the paper

“Parental wealth is associated with greater offspring educational and cognitive achievement”

• Also stated in: § Consequences of Wealth: Wealth as Predictor · plain

  “Parental wealth is associated with greater offspring educational and cognitive achievement (Conley 1999, 2001b; Doren & Grodsky 2016, Friedline et al. 2015, Jez 2014, Orr 2003, Pfeffer 2011, Yeung & Conley 2008)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 1999, 2001b
• Partly supported

  The Results section on baccalaureate college attendance reports a positive association between parental wealth and children’s college attendance, supporting the educational part of the claim. The Data > Measures section identifies a test of children’s cognitive skills, but the passages found do not report an association between parental wealth and children’s cognitive achievement. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Doren & Grodsky 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Friedline et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“the correlation of wealth across generations in the U.S. is roughly 0.3 to 0.4”

• Also stated in: § Wealth Determinants: Wealth as Outcome · hedged

  “The few available estimates of intergenerational wealth mobility suggest that the correlation of wealth across generations in the U.S. is roughly 0.3 to 0.4, similar to the intergenerational persistence in other measures of socioeconomic attainment (Charles & Hurst 2003, Conley & Glauber 2008, Mulligan 1997, Pfeffer & Killewald 2015).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section III reports an age-adjusted parent–child wealth elasticity of 0.37 and describes the estimate as a measure of the intergenerational wealth correlation. The Conclusion likewise reports 0.37 using PSID data, supporting the approximate 0.3–0.4 range. The reported statistic is an elasticity, not a separately calculated correlation coefficient. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Charles & Hurst 2003 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley & Glauber 2008
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Mulligan 1997

In the paper

“The PSID and Health and Retirement Survey (HRS) compare favorably to the SCF up until at least the 95th percentile of the wealth distribution (Bosworth & Smart 2009, Juster et al. 1999, Pfeffer et al. 2016)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bosworth & Smart 2009 source
• Partly supported

  In §1.2 (p. 5), the paper reports that PSID and SCF wealth estimates differ relatively modestly from the 30th through 95th percentiles, supporting the PSID portion of the claim. That comparison does not include HRS; the retrieved HRS passage (§1.4, p. 11) does not compare its wealth distribution with SCF. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Juster et al. 1999 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer et al. 2016

In the paper

“An alternative approach is to model wealth accumulation rather than net worth, using either lagged dependent variables or change models (e.g., Conley 2001a, Hurst et al. 1998, McKernan et al. 2014, O’Brien 2012). The advantage is that, rather than requiring lifetime histories of relevant covariates, fewer data points may suffice; characteristics in one period (including wealth) may approximate the”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 2001a
• Supported

  The citation identifies an example of modeling wealth accumulation, rather than wealth levels, using prior-period variables. The discussion of tables 22–23 (pp. 314–316) models 1989–94 wealth accumulation using 1989 wealth and 1984–89 accumulation. The following sentence about needing fewer data points is the citing authors’ explanation of the approach, not a finding explicitly attributed to Hurst et al. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Hurst et al. 1998 source
• Partly supported

  In “How Private Transfers Influence Wealth” (page not supplied), the paper describes a comparison model that includes lagged wealth, supporting that part of the citation. Its dependent variable is current wealth holdings, however, not wealth change; the section does not describe a change model or say that this approach requires fewer data points than lifetime histories. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites McKernan et al. 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Among older adults, wealth is negatively associated with mortality (Attanasio & Hoynes 2000, Bond Huie et al. 2003)”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 7, “Estimates of Mortality Rates” (page not provided), reports that death rates are inversely related to wealth quartile at all ages. This supports the stated association among older adults; the claim does not assert that wealth causes lower mortality. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Attanasio & Hoynes 2000 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bond Huie et al. 2003 source

In the paper

“For men, wealth encourages retirement (Conley & Thompson 2013).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Discussion states that increases in family wealth between waves allow men to retire. The paper’s summary of its models also reports that positive shocks to net worth increase the probability of retirement, with the effect strongest for men. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Conley & Thompson 2013 source

In the paper

“the share of households with no wealth or in net debt increased from 9.7% to 12.9%.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Background section (‘Long-terms trends in the distribution of wealth’; page unavailable) reports an increase in households with zero or negative net worth, from 15.5% in 1983 to 18.6% in 2007. It does not support the claimed figures of 9.7% and 12.9%; searches for both figures found no matching passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Pfeffer et al. 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Wolff 2016

In the paper

“and facilitates self-employment (Fairlie & Krashinsky 2012, but see also Hurst & Lusardi 2004).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Conclusion (p. 30) reports that self-employment entry rates generally increase with wealth among both job losers and non-job losers. The model (p. 8) explains how limited assets can discourage entry into self-employment, supporting the claim that individuals’ own wealth facilitates it. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Fairlie & Krashinsky 2012 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hurst & Lusardi 2004 source

In the paper

“the median U.S. household with less net worth in 2013 than in 1995 ($81,400 vs. $87,700 in 2013-$).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Repeated cross-sectional analyses; page unavailable) report a decline in median household net worth from 2003 to 2011, supporting the general downward trend. The paper does not establish the claimed 2013-versus-1995 comparison or the figures $81,400 and $87,700 (searched: both amounts and 1995). (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Pfeffer et al. 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Wolff 2016

In the paper

“The fraction of aggregate U.S. net worth attributable to inheritances or other transfers has been hotly debated, but it is typically estimated to exceed 50 percent when post-transfer appreciation is considered (Gale & Scholz 1994, Kotlikoff & Summers 1981, Wilhelm 2001).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  In “Moving Up from a Lower Bound” (page unavailable), Gale and Scholz estimate that intended transfers plus bequests account for at least 51% of U.S. net worth. “Measuring Intended Transfers” says they include interest earned after a transfer. But the paper also says its 51% figure is higher than most U.S. estimates, and reports 40% under a different growth assumption; it therefore does not support the claim that estimates typically exceed 50%. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Gale & Scholz 1994 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kotlikoff & Summers 1981 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Wilhelm 2001

In the paper

“Finally, we note that, similar to the evidence for wealth’s effect on health, evidence for the causal effect of poor health and negative health shocks on wealth is mixed (Adams et al. 2003, Conley & Thompson 2013, Hurd & Kapteyn 2003, Wu 2003).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Adams et al. 2003 source
• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports mixed findings: acute health shocks are associated with lower contemporaneous net worth for whites, while the wealth hit for blacks appears only among retirees; lagged effects are not significant. This supports the claim that findings vary, but the paper presents these as associations in particular groups and periods, not as established causal effects of poor health on wealth generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Conley & Thompson 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hurd & Kapteyn 2003 source

In the paper

“The association with wealth is stronger at higher income and earnings levels (Barsky et al. 2002, Killewald 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Barsky et al. 2002 source
• Partly supported

  The Results report that the association between own income and wealth is more than three times stronger in income quartiles 2–4 than in the bottom quartile (coefficients 2.78 versus 0.86). The paper measures household income, however, and does not establish the same pattern separately for earnings; its mention of earnings in the Race and Wealth section concerns wealth accumulation over time. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Killewald 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Married couples accumulate substantially more wealth than unmarried individuals, women who are married only once have higher wealth than those who divorce and remarry, and in both cases differences are not entirely explained by other characteristics, including income (Addo & Lichter 2013, Ruel & Hauser 2013, Yamokoski & Keister 2006, Zagorsky 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Addo & Lichter 2013 source
• Supported

  In the Analysis section on married men and women BFR (page unavailable), the paper reports that currently married women who had married more than once accumulated less wealth, on average, than women who had married once. Its Results section also identifies a wealth cost of marital disruption, partly attenuated by remarriage. The comparison is based on the paper’s cohort of graduates. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Ruel & Hauser 2013 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yamokoski & Keister 2006 source

In the paper

“Married couples accumulate substantially more wealth than unmarried individuals, women who are married only once have higher wealth than those who divorce and remarry, and in both cases differences are not entirely explained by other characteristics, including income (Addo & Lichter 2013, Ruel & Hauser 2013, Yamokoski & Keister 2006, Zagorsky 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Addo & Lichter 2013 source
• Supported

  The Results section explicitly reports that married individuals accumulate more wealth than unmarried individuals. The Background section likewise states that married families accumulate more wealth than single-headed households. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Ruel & Hauser 2013 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yamokoski & Keister 2006 source

In the paper

“Self-employment is associated with higher net worth (Altonji & Doraszelski 2005, Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997), as is stock ownership (Hurst et al. 1998).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The wealth equation discussed on p. 309 reports that, conditional on income and demographic factors, households holding stock had on average $52,454 more wealth than those without. This directly supports the claimed association with higher net worth. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Hurst et al. 1998 source

In the paper

“At the individual level, inheritances and inter vivos transfers are positively associated with net worth and wealth gains (Conley 2001a, Conley & Ryvicker 2004, Hurst et al. 1998, Karagiannaki Forthcoming, McKernan et al. 2014, Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997, Semyonov & Lewin-Epstein 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 2001a
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley & Ryvicker 2004
• Partly supported

  The discussion of table 22 (p. 315) identifies inheritance proceeds as contributors to wealth accumulation and says net inflows from family members entering or leaving increase household wealth. It does not establish a positive association for inter vivos transfers specifically, and its analysis is at the household rather than individual level. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Hurst et al. 1998 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“However, in the U.S., direct transfers explain less than 20 percent of the intergenerational association in wealth positions (Charles & Hurst 2003, Pfeffer & Killewald 2015).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section IV reports that expected bequests and previous gifts, considered on their own, explain approximately 17% of the age-adjusted parent–child wealth elasticity—less than 20%. The study measures past gifts and expected future bequests; the children in its sample had not yet received bequests. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Charles & Hurst 2003 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer & Killewald 2015

In the paper

“Self-employment is associated with higher net worth (Altonji & Doraszelski 2005, Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997), as is stock ownership (Hurst et al. 1998).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 8 reports a substantial positive association between self-employment and wealth, particularly for white couples. The paper treats the direction of causality as ambiguous, consistent with the claim’s wording as an association. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Altonji & Doraszelski 2005 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997 source

In the paper

“Married couples accumulate substantially more wealth than unmarried individuals, women who are married only once have higher wealth than those who divorce and remarry, and in both cases differences are not entirely explained by other characteristics, including income (Addo & Lichter 2013, Ruel & Hauser 2013, Yamokoski & Keister 2006, Zagorsky 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Addo & Lichter 2013 source
• Partly supported

  The Analysis section (page not provided) reports that the wealth gap between men married once and men married more than once remained after the full model; the Methods section says income was among the measured characteristics. But the adjusted comparisons do not establish the same result separately for married versus unmarried people or for women married once versus women who divorced and remarried—the two comparisons covered by “in both cases.” (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Ruel & Hauser 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yamokoski & Keister 2006 source

In the paper

“On average, wealth increases over the life course at least until about age 60 (Díaz-Giménez et al. 1997, Hurst et al. 1998, Wolff 1998)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Díaz-Giménez et al. 1997
• Partly supported

  The discussion of Table 2 says that pre-retirement households aged 55–64 hold substantial wealth relative to their share of families, and the cohort analysis (pp. 291–293) reports wealth growth as senior baby boomers aged. These passages support a broad age-related pattern, but they do not establish that average wealth rises throughout the life course until about age 60. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites Hurst et al. 1998 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Supported

  In “The Young are Getting Poorer,” the paper says mean wealth increases with age through about 65, then falls. This supports the claim that average wealth rises until at least about age 60. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Wolff 1998 source

In the paper

“Like African-Americans, Hispanics are particularly disadvantaged relative to whites in absolute terms at higher points in the wealth distribution (Maroto 2016).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The ‘Inequality in Net Worth Across the Distribution’ section reports that Hispanic–white wealth gaps measured in dollars grow substantially at higher percentiles, from roughly $4,000–$8,000 at the 10th percentile to $451,000 at the 75th and $1,023,000 at the 90th. The claim describes this absolute pattern; it does not assert that the gap remains significant after adjustment for other factors. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Maroto 2016 source

In the paper

“Neighborhood segregation further intensified African-Americans’ vulnerability to subprime lending and home foreclosures (Hwang et al. 2015, Rugh et al. 2015, Rugh & Massey 2010).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hwang et al. 2015 source
• Supported

  The Abstract says that race and neighborhood racial segregation explain black disadvantage across successive stages of lending and foreclosure in its Baltimore case study. The Discussion adds that black borrowers were disproportionately likely to receive higher-cost, higher-risk loans, increasing their risk of foreclosure and repossession. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Rugh et al. 2015 source
• Supported

  The Abstract says residential segregation created minority neighborhoods targeted for risky subprime loans and reports that black segregation predicted foreclosures. “Segregation and the Foreclosure Crisis” explicitly says segregation caused risky mortgages and foreclosures to accumulate disproportionately in minority neighborhoods. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Rugh & Massey 2010 source

In the paper

“In absolute terms, wealth disparities between whites and African-Americans are larger at higher points in the wealth distribution (Maroto 2016).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The 'Inequality in Net Worth Across the Distribution' section says that black–white net worth disparities measured in dollars increase as household wealth rises. It reports a gap of about $4,000–$8,000 at the 10th percentile, $464,000 at the 75th, and $1,055,000 at the 90th. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Maroto 2016 source

In the paper

“Race differences in asset portfolios, including business assets and self-employment, may contribute to the race gap in wealth as well (Altonji & Doraszelski 2005, Conley 2001a, Gittleman & Wolff 2004, Hurst et al. 1998, Keister 2000, Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997, Oliver & Shapiro 2006).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 8 finds that racial differences in self-employment patterns are a significant part of explaining the Black–White wealth gap, while noting that causality is ambiguous. Sections 10 and 13 document differences in business wealth and stock holdings and suggest that portfolio-related differences in returns may also play a role. The claim’s tentative wording preserves those qualifications. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Altonji & Doraszelski 2005 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 2001a
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gittleman & Wolff 2004 source

In the paper

“including disproportionate rates of subprime mortgage loans among black households leading up to the Great Recession (Massey et al. 2016, Rugh 2015, Rugh et al. 2015).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract reports that African Americans were much more likely than white borrowers to receive high-cost, high-risk loans during the housing boom. The Historical Segregation and Discrimination section also describes black borrowers as disproportionately represented among subprime borrowers by 2006. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Massey et al. 2016 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rugh 2015 source
• Supported

  In Data and Methods, the paper reports that 64% of black borrowers in its Baltimore sample received high-cost subprime loans, compared with 18% of white borrowers. It also places the lending during the housing bubble, including 2006, supporting the claim's timing before the Great Recession. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Rugh et al. 2015 source

In the paper

“In addition to homeownership, whites have higher rates of ownership of risky assets, such as stocks and businesses, net of other characteristics (Hurst et al. 1998; Keister 2000, 2004; Oliver & Shapiro 2006).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The paper states that African American families were less likely to hold public or private business equities than other families at a given income, family composition, and age (p. 268). Its Stock Ownership section also reports a racial difference in stock ownership after accounting for income, age, and other life-cycle factors (p. 301). (LLM, conf=0.89)

  cites Hurst et al. 1998 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Keister 2000, 2004
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Oliver & Shapiro 2006

In the paper

“African-Americans’ wealth appears less responsive than whites’ to their traits, including income, education, and marital history (Addo & Lichter 2013, Altonji & Doraszelski 2005, Campbell & Kaufman 2006, Oliver & Shapiro 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Addo & Lichter 2013 source
• Supported

  The Introduction states that whites’ wealth is much more sensitive to income and demographics than blacks’ wealth. Sections 2.2 and 4 describe the demographic measures used, including marriage histories and education, making these examples consistent with the paper’s broader finding. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Altonji & Doraszelski 2005 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell & Kaufman 2006 source

In the paper

“Cross-country differences in the distribution of wealth are different from those based on income (Jäntti et al. 2008, Skopek et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Jäntti et al. 2008
• Supported

  In “National patterns of wealth and income inequality” (page not provided), the paper compares income and wealth inequality across countries and reports large discrepancies in some countries, including Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland. It also notes similarities in others, so the claim is supported as a statement about differing cross-country patterns, not a claim that every country differs. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Skopek et al. 2014 source

In the paper

“while the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) wealth data diverge more sharply (Curtin et al. 1989, Czajka et al. 2003).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Curtin et al. 1989
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Czajka et al. 2003

In the paper

“Wealth and income have not become more aligned over time; in fact, the wealth-income correlation appears to have decreased over the last quarter century (see Figure 3).”

In the paper

“As expected, excluding asset income from household income reduces the wealth-income correlation but by less than previously thought (Figure 3)”

In the paper

“we observe a drop in the SCF from .66 (1989) and .64 (2013) to above .50 in both years.”

In the paper

“for households at the median relative to those at the 25th percentile, from 7:1 to 9:1.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer and Schoeni 2016

In the paper

“Between 2001 and 2013, the wealth share owned by the top 1 percent increased from 32 to 36 percent.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer and Schoeni 2016

In the paper

“Income and wealth are more weakly associated in young adulthood, underscoring wealth’s cumulative nature (see Figure 2).”

In the paper

“The typically-cited estimate is based on an endnote in Lerman and Mikesell (1988) (cited in Keister and Moller 2000), which is thin on empirical detail”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lerman and Mikesell 1988 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keister and Moller 2000 source

In the paper

“Wealth-income correlations are higher when drawing on multiple rather than single income year measures from the PSID.”

In the paper

“The ratio of wealth held by households at the 95th percentile relative to those at the median increased from 15:1 to 23:1”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer and Schoeni 2016

In the paper

“As demonstrated above, wealth and income are strongly associated.”

In the paper

“Institutionalized racism, including redlining and subprime lending, is also implicated in the race gap in wealth”

• Also stated in: § Wealth Determinants: Wealth as Outcome · plain

  “Institutionalized racism, including redlining and subprime lending, is also implicated in the race gap in wealth (Conley 1999, Massey & Denton 1993, Oliver & Shapiro 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 1999
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Massey & Denton 1993
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Oliver & Shapiro 2006

In the paper

“homeownership appears to generate wealth for most households”

• Also stated in: § Wealth Determinants: Wealth as Outcome · hedged

  “yet homeownership appears to generate wealth for most households (Flippen 2004, Killewald & Bryan 2016, Oliver & Shapiro 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Flippen 2004 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Killewald & Bryan 2016
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Oliver & Shapiro 2006

In the paper

“Typically, these latter determinants are measured only contemporaneously with wealth.”

In the paper

“Wealth transformations are therefore not an incidental technical decision, but a conceptual choice with potential consequences for substantive conclusions.”

In the paper

“Wealth’s status as a cumulative measure becomes even more problematic in the presence of reverse causality concerns. Marriage, health, residential selection, homeownership, self-employment, and portfolio composition are all characteristics that may both be shaped by prior wealth and shape subsequent wealth.”

In the paper

“in examining the race gap in wealth, scholars frequently measure the gap unexplained by differences in current income levels, rather than the difference unexplained by differences in lifetime income streams to date.”

In the paper

“if offspring outcomes are affected by parental income throughout childhood, but parental income is measured in a single year, the association between parental wealth and offspring outcomes may merely reflect wealth’s association with permanent income, net of current income.”

In the paper

“Although income is the most obvious variable with cumulative effects on wealth, other time-varying wealth determinants, such as marriage and neighborhood context, are subject to the same challenge.”

In the paper

“Panel methods estimating within-individual change can help to alleviate reverse causality concerns.”

In the paper

“This concern is heightened if other predictors are point-in-time, given that wealth carries traces of prior experiences.”

In the paper

“Associations between parental wealth and offspring outcomes net of other parental socio-economic (SES) controls may merely capture spurious associations, including those due to measurement or specification error in the other SES variables.”

In the paper

“Averaging income measures across several preceding years, when possible, reduces this concern.”

In the paper

“Alternatively, macro-economic fluctuations can serve as exogenous shocks facilitating identification of wealth effects on various outcomes.”

In the paper

“Administrative data can supplement or substitute for survey data on net worth.”

In the paper

“An alternative is marginal structural models, estimated with inverse probability of treatment weights, which offer one way to model dynamic selection processes over time (Robins et al. 2000).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Robins et al. 2000 source

In the paper

“The transformation selected has important implications for the assumed pattern of associations between other model predictors and net worth.”

In the paper

“and labor market outcomes, such as occupational attainment and work hours (Conley 1999, Pfeffer 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 1999
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer 2011

In the paper

“Therefore, the fact that wealth shocks do not immediately lead to health changes or increased mortality rates does not preclude the possibility that a lifetime of wealth conditions has a cumulative effect on health outcomes in older age.”

In the paper

“A substantial line of research has demonstrated that family wealth is associated with other social outcomes, above and beyond standard socio-economic and demographic predictors.”

In the paper

“wealth scholars argue that family wealth and family income are conceptually distinct (Keister & Moller 2000, Spilerman 2000).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keister & Moller 2000 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Spilerman 2000 source

In the paper

“ample evidence has substantiated this assertion: as we describe later, wealth is associated with a host of outcomes, net of income.”

In the paper

“Individuals’ own wealth also speeds transitions to homeownership (Di & Liu 2007, Killewald & Bryan 2016)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Di & Liu 2007
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Killewald & Bryan 2016

In the paper

“and positively associated with maintaining good health (Hurd & Kapteyn 2003, Semyonov et al. 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hurd & Kapteyn 2003 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Semyonov et al. 2013

In the paper

“Given the theoretical centrality of the claim that wealth captures aspects of economic wellbeing distinct from income, the lack of a well-established wealth-income correlation estimate is surprising.”

In the paper

“A challenge hampering evaluation of the association between wealth and health is that both are stock measures.”

In the paper

“as well as transitions to homeownership (Charles & Hurst 2002, Spilerman & Wolff 2012).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Charles & Hurst 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Spilerman & Wolff 2012 source

In the paper

“the wealth of grandparents is associated with own educational attainment and wealth, net of parental wealth (Hällsten & Pfeffer Forthcoming, Pfeffer & Killewald 2015)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Hällsten & Pfeffer Forthcoming
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer & Killewald 2015

In the paper

“Education explains about a quarter of the intergenerational persistence in wealth (Pfeffer & Killewald 2015), likely by supporting income persistence across generations (Charles & Hurst 2003).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer & Killewald 2015
• Not checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  cites Charles & Hurst 2003 source

In the paper

“Having siblings is associated with lower adult wealth, possibly because parental resources of both money and time are diluted among offspring (Keister 2003a).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Keister 2003a

In the paper

“The wealth benefits of homeownership persist even after accounting for prior wealth levels and prior savings rates (Di et al. 2007, Killewald & Bryan 2016).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Di et al. 2007
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Killewald & Bryan 2016

In the paper

“Therefore, the evidence is currently not strong enough to confirm a causal effect of marriage on subsequent wealth accumulation.”

In the paper

“Strong intergenerational wealth persistence at the top of the distribution also characterizes more egalitarian Norway (Hansen 2014).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hansen 2014 source

In the paper

“We view the evidence on the wealth effects of self-employment and other asset choices as less conclusive than that for homeownership because less attention has been paid to accounting for selection.”

In the paper

“with the median wealth of white households typically about 10 times that of black households and about 8 times that of Hispanic households”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Kochhar et al. 2011

In the paper

“Housing wealth constitutes the single largest component of wealth among middle-class families (Wolff 2016).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Wolff 2016

In the paper

“Using German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) data, which tracks solely-held assets and the share owned of any jointly-held assets, Sierminska, Frick, and Grabka (2010) find that wealth gaps are largest in absolute terms among the married.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sierminska, Frick, and Grabka (2010) source

In the paper

“Compared to whites, African-Americans have substantially lower rates of homeownership, transition to homeownership more slowly, own homes of lower values, have less housing equity, and exit homeownership at higher rates; these differences generally persist even after adjusting for race differences in other characteristics (Charles & Hurst 2002, Flippen 2001, Keister 2000, 2004; Killewald & Bryan 2”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Charles & Hurst 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Flippen 2001 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Keister 2000, 2004

In the paper

“Although blacks do not appear to save at lower rates than whites after adjusting for income (Conley 1999, Gittleman & Wolff 2004), wealth disparities remain large even among households with similar incomes.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley 1999
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gittleman & Wolff 2004 source

In the paper

“Compared to whites, African-Americans have substantially lower rates of homeownership, transition to homeownership more slowly, own homes of lower values, have less housing equity, and exit homeownership at higher rates; these differences generally persist even after adjusting for race differences in other characteristics (Charles & Hurst 2002, Flippen 2001, Keister 2000, 2004; Killewald & Bryan 2”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Charles & Hurst 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Flippen 2001 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Keister 2000, 2004

In the paper

“we believe there is sufficient evidence to conclude that housing markets contribute to it.”

In the paper

“Using qualitative data on a U.S. sample, Chang (2010) documents that wives typically have less access to and control over marital wealth.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chang (2010) source

In the paper

“Among the unmarried, women’s median wealth is less than men’s (Chang 2010, Yamokoski & Keister 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chang 2010 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yamokoski & Keister 2006 source

In the paper

“In the U.S., variation in wealth by nativity status is modest compared to variation by race-ethnicity and national origin (Hao 2004, 2007).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hao 2004 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Hao 2007

In the paper

“Incarceration is associated with reduced wealth (Maroto 2015), suggesting that racial disparities in incarceration experience may contribute to the racial wealth gap.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maroto 2015 source

In the paper

“race disparities also increased during the Great Recession (Kochhar et al. 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Kochhar et al. 2011

In the paper

“Whites also experience greater (absolute) wealth returns to homeownership (Killewald & Bryan 2016), which may reflect slower appreciation by homes in minority neighborhoods (Flippen 2004, Oliver & Shapiro 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Killewald & Bryan 2016
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Flippen 2004 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Oliver & Shapiro 2006

In the paper

“We consider it likely that these forms of institutional discrimination, as well as residential segregation, directly contribute to the race gap in wealth.”

In the paper

“The race gap in income (or earnings) is a substantial contributor to the race gap in wealth (Barsky et al. 2002, Campbell & Kaufman 2006, Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Barsky et al. 2002 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campbell & Kaufman 2006 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Menchik & Jianakoplos 1997 source

In the paper

“prior research finds evidence consistent with discrimination against African-Americans in lending markets for homes, vehicles, and businesses (Blanchflower et al. 2003, Cavalluzzo & Wolken 2005, Charles et al. 2008, Charles & Hurst 2002, Oliver & Shapiro 2006)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Blanchflower et al. 2003 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cavalluzzo & Wolken 2005 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Charles et al. 2008 source

In the paper

“Even net of social origins, however, blacks experience higher rates of intergenerational downward wealth mobility (Conley & Glauber 2008, Pfeffer & Killewald 2015).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Conley & Glauber 2008
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Pfeffer & Killewald 2015

In the paper

“Macro-economic circumstances, political institutions, and institutional structures also shape wealth levels and inequality.”

In the paper

“with the median wealth of white households typically about 10 times that of black households and about 8 times that of Hispanic households”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Kochhar et al. 2011

In the paper

“Since the ARS reviews of the literature on wealth and wealth inequality by Keister and Moller (2000) and Spilerman (2000), wealth research has expanded considerably.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Keister and Moller (2000) source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Spilerman (2000) source

In the paper

“Higher inflation rates constitute a broader economic factor influencing wealth inequality, by advantaging young, middle-class households’ wealth position at the expense of older and richer households (Doepke & Schneider 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Doepke & Schneider 2006 source

In the paper

“Since the 1930s, active federal government intervention in the housing market has increased the supply of available mortgage capital.”