The DOI matches its Crossref record; 122 of the 122 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health?
Abstract
We previously proposed that socioeconomic status (SES) is a fundamental cause of health inequalities and, as such, that SES inequalities in health persist over time despite radical changes in the diseases, risks, and interventions that happen to produce them at any given time. Like SES, race in the United States has an enduring connection to health and mortality. Our goals here are to evaluate whether this connection endures because systemic racism is a fundamental cause of health inequalities and, in doing so, to review a wide range of empirical data regarding racial differences in health outcomes, health risks, and health-enhancing resources such as money, knowledge, power, prestige, freedom, and beneficial social connections. We conclude that racial inequalities in health endure primarily because racism is a fundamental cause of racial differences in SES and because SES is a fundamental cause of health inequalities. In addition to these powerful connections, however, there is evidence that racism, largely via inequalities in power, prestige, freedom, neighborhood context, and health care, also has a fundamental association with health independent of SES.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In fundamental cause theory, the mechanisms enacted by a dominant group to suppress access to flexible resources must be replaceable over time (Link and Phelan, 1995; Phelan and Link, 2015).”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Phelan and Link, 2015
In the citing paper
“To comprise a fundamental cause, a social factor must satisfy three criteria (Link and Phelan, 1995; Phelan et al., 2010).”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Phelan and Link, 2015
In the citing paper
“To date, several fundamental causes—e.g., socioeconomic status (SES; Link and Phelan, 1995), stigma (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2013), racism/racial segregation (Phelan and Link, 2015; Williams and Collins, 2016)—have been codified in the literature.”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Phelan and Link, 2015
In the citing paper
“when new opportunities to reinforce the effect of a fundamental cause on health disparities materialize, new mechanisms will reliably emerge to support or strengthen the relationship”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Phelan and Link, 2015
In the citing paper
“In our model’s second indirect mechanism, cultural trauma may perpetuate health disparities by decreasing affected groups’ access to flexible resources (e.g., money, power, prestige) (Link and Phelan, 1995; Phelan and Link, 2015) through (1) cultural resource loss; and (2) stigma-related minority stress and disadvantaging.”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Phelan and Link, 2015
In the citing paper
“According to ecosocial theory, structural racism erodes the health of Black individuals by exposing them to economic injustice, poor living conditions, and political exclusion [10], all of which pose health risks and limit their access to resources [11,12].”
From Intersections of Structural State-Level Racism and Neighborhood Deprivation on Nutrition and Obesity for Black Adolescents (2025) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“By creating unequal access to resources and opportunity, racism is a fundamental cause of racial inequities in health [10,11].”
From Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
Citations
Cites
Sen, A. K. (2009) · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-28787-8_94 · Cited by 15,887
Meyer, I. H. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674 · Cited by 14,736
Jennifer A. Clapp (University of Waterloo), & Sen, A. K. (1999) · International Journal Canada s Journal of Global Policy Analysis · doi:10.2307/40203469 · Cited by 13,603
Unequal treatment: confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-5843 · Cited by 7,043
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770
Protective and Damaging Effects of Stress Mediators
McEwen, B. S. (1998) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199801153380307 · Cited by 6,733 · cited 1×
“McEwen and colleagues (e.g., McEwen 1998) developed the concept of allostatic load, that is, the cumulative wear and tear on the body’s systems owing to repeated adaptation stressors.”
BackgroundThe Matthew Effect in Science: The reward and communication systems of science are considered.
Merton, R. K. (1968) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.159.3810.56 · Cited by 6,720 · cited 1×
“As shown in Figure 1, these mechanisms result in the maintenance over time (Merton 1968) of racial differences in flexible resources of money, knowledge, power, prestige, beneficial social connections, and freedom, which in turn are connected by multiple replaceable mechanisms to racial differences…”
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass.
Fernandez, R. M., Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2074502 · Cited by 6,191
Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease.
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. (1995) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2626958 · Cited by 5,722
Self-citation(1968) · PubMed · Cited by 4,803
Research works printed but not linked: 18
- Aguilar LA, 2013, Inclusion is a strength: corporate America and the SEC should reflect America
- Bailey R, 1994, Agric. Hist., 68, 35
- Basil K, 2007, Can. Fam. Physicians, 53, 1704
- Carter SB, 2006, Historical Statistics of the U.S
- CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.), 2004, The Burden of Chronic Diseases and Their Risk Factors
- 10.1037//0003-066X.54.10.805 · DOI · Paper page
- DeNavas-Walt C, 2012, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the US: 2011
- 10.4324/9780203890646 · DOI
- Geronimus AT, 1992, Ethn. Dis., 2, 207
- Lemelle AJ, 2002, J. Black Stud., 26, 89
- McKernan SM, 2013, Less than Equal: Racial Disparities in Wealth Accumulation
- MMWR, 1999, Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 48, 143
- National Center for Health Statistics, 2004, Health, United States, 2003.
- National Center for Health Statistics, 2014, Health, United States, 2013: With Special Features on Prescription Drugs
- Petersen LA, 2002, Med. Care, 40, 86
- 10.1037//0003-066X.52.6.613 · DOI · Paper page
- Weissert WG, 1988, Health Serv. Res., 23, 619
- 10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50068-7 · DOI · Paper page
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–1,000 of 1,001
What Makes Systemic Discrimination, 'Systemic?' Exposing the Amplifiers of InequityPreprint
McMillon, D. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4650232 · Cited by 5
Antiracism and Health Equity Science: Overcoming Scientific Obstacles to Health Equity
Griffith, D. M. (2024) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1177/00333549241236089 · Cited by 4
Wells, W., Xue, B., Lacey, R. E., & McMunn, A. (2024) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2024-222633 · Cited by 3
State Immigrant Policies and Intersectional Inequalities in Health
Patti, R. J., & Boen, C. (2025) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-025-09949-z · Cited by 3
Park, S. S., Pebley, A. R., Goldman, N., Pratt, B., & Sheftel, M. G. (2025) · Demography · doi:10.1215/00703370-11977071 · Cited by 3
Liang, S., & Liu, C. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118436 · Cited by 3
Khor, S., Bansal, A., Basu, A., Shankaran, V., & Carlson, J. J. (2025) · JCO oncology advances. · doi:10.1200/oa-25-00026 · Cited by 3
Structural Resilience Across the Life Course: Perspectives From Older Adults Racialized as Black
Kim, B., Cooke, A., Riser, T. J., Hladek, M. D., Adkins‐Jackson, P. B., Samuel, L. J., Thorpe, R. J., & Szanton, S. L. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.70222 · Cited by 3
Zhang, X., Linn, B. K., & Moss, J. L. (2025) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2025.108115 · Cited by 3
Chauntry, A. J., Moore, J. B., Seeman, T. E., Shea, S., Sloan, R. P., Phillips, A. C., Puterman, E. M., Turner, A. I., Tyne, W. P., Hutson, M. J., et al. (2025) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2025.107657 · Cited by 3
Neighborhood social environments and mental health among youth and adults in public housing
Leer, J., Lanteri, L., Coley, R. L., & Teixeira, S. N. (2025) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.70036 · Cited by 3
Hauschildt, K. E., Thornton, J. D., Brown, C. E., Hope, A. A., Jain, S., Valley, T. S., Aslakson, R. A., Carlton, E. F., Iwashyna, T. J., Mikkelsen, M. E., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202509-2229st · Cited by 6
Murray, J. L., Tanana, H. J., Metz, T. D., Perry, R., Kimball, E. R., Galyean, P. O., Zickmund, S. L., Varner, M. W., & Debbink, M. P. (2026) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/1471-0528.70136 · Cited by 3
Unequal by the gun: Four decades of the Black-White firearm homicide gap
Knorre, A., & MacDonald, J. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0341645 · Cited by 3
Diminished Returns: The Hidden Health Costs of Upward Social Mobility for Black Americans
Hudson, D., Collins-Anderson, A., Nixon, A. J., & Sacks, T. K. (2026) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-081424-035408 · Cited by 4
Structural Disadvantage in Adolescence and Biological Aging in Early Midlife
Hargrove, T. W., D'Alessio, A. S., Tuder, S., Harrell, A. N., Gaydosh, L. M., Kelly, A. L., Aiello, A. E., Harris, K. M., Levitt, B., & Martin, C. L. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.11913 · Cited by 5
Coloniality and racism impacts the health of young people
King, P. T., & Robson, B. (2022) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(22)01878-5 · Cited by 3
Racial and ethnic inequities in stillbirth in the US: Looking upstream to close the gap
Debbink, M. P., Stanhope, K. K., & HOGUE, C. J. R. (2023) · Seminars in Perinatology · doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2023.151865 · Cited by 3
Boyd, D. T., Ramos, S. R., Maragh‐Bass, A. C., Dyer, T. V., Zigah, E. Y., & Abu-Ba’are, G. R. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18171-z · Cited by 3
What Education Cannot Equalize: Segregated Social Networks and Media in Stratified Reproduction
Tierney, K. (2024) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2024.2325383 · Cited by 4
Rai, T., Dowrick, A., Qureshi, K., Munro, H., Wild, C. E. K., Douglas, J., & Ziébland, S. (2024) · Journal of Critical Public Health · doi:10.55016/ojs/jcph.v1i2.77774 · Cited by 3
Leitzelar, B. N., Almassi, N. E., Andreae, S. J., Winkle-Wagner, R., Cadmus‐Bertram, L., Columna, L. A., Crombie, K. M., & Koltyn, K. F. (2024) · Health Promotion Perspectives · doi:10.34172/hpp.42548 · Cited by 3
Milanfar, L., Soulsby, W. D., Ling, N., O'Brien, J. P., Oates, A., & McCulloch, C. E. (2024) · Journal of Medical Systems · doi:10.1007/s10916-024-02114-7 · Cited by 6
How Sexism in Institutions and Everyday Interactions Shapes Early Childbearing
Su, J. H., & Musick, K. (2024) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224241291602 · Cited by 5
Canada, T., & Carter, C. R. (2024) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/731253 · Cited by 4
Lai, W. (2024) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/21568693241289356 · Cited by 5
Mateo, C. M., McCormick, D., Connors, C., & Basu, G. (2024) · Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development · doi:10.1177/23821205241303643 · Cited by 3
Oh, H. Y., Karcher, N. R., Besecker, M., DeVylder, J., & Lincoln, K. D. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1529835 · Cited by 3
The Social Division of Care Work Time Over Half a Century
Goñalons-Pons, P., & Ansari-Thomas, Z. (2025) · Demography · doi:10.1215/00703370-11879571 · Cited by 3
Leisher, S. H., Factor-Litvak, P. R., Huynh, M., Kline, J. K., Silver, R. M., Wang, S., & Bates, L. M. (2025) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/1471-0528.18217 · Cited by 3
The Use of Biased Language in the Care of Seriously Ill Children: A Pilot Study
Major-Kincade, T. L., Kim, E. J., Price, C. A., Banerjee, A., Franklin, N., Almendárez, I. C., Jump, J. L., Rubenstein, J., & Jarrell, J. A. (2025) · American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine® · doi:10.1177/10499091251345723 · Cited by 3
White, K. M., Barber, L. E., Shipman-Lacewell, J. R., Azeez, O., Collop, N. A., & Johnson, D. A. (2025) · Current Sleep Medicine Reports · doi:10.1007/s40675-025-00339-7 · Cited by 4
Rigby, D., Esposito, M. H., Brown, T. H., Lee, H. E., & Clark, S. (2025) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.1080/01419870.2025.2570482 · Cited by 4
Landor, A. M., Zeiders, K. H., Brown, A. M., Osman, K. M., Sarsar, E. D., & Godwin, J. (2025) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2025.107676 · Cited by 3
Belák, A., Gecková, A. M., van Dijk, J. P., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2019) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s00038-019-01246-9 · Cited by 3
Gendered tri-racial stratification and health disparities
Erving, C. L. (2020) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102427 · Cited by 3
Examining Racism in Psychoanalytic Training: Perspectives from a Psychiatry Resident
Pacheco, N. E. (2021) · Psychodynamic Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/pdps.2021.49.4.481 · Cited by 3
Doherty, E. E., & Green, K. M. (2022) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azac079 · Cited by 3
Enhanced Identification of Hispanic Ethnicity Using Clinical Data
Ochoa‐Allemant, P., Tate, J. P., Williams, E. C., Gordon, K. S., Marconi, V. C., Bensley, K. M., Rentsch, C. T., Wang, K., Taddei, T. H., Justice, A. C., et al. (2023) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/mlr.0000000000001824 · Cited by 4
Gusoff, G. M., Chen, K. L., Moreno, G., Elmore, J. G., & Zimmerman, F. J. (2023) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-023-08228-x · Cited by 3
Beckman, S., Castañeda, X., del Rivero, V., Chavez, A., & Schenker, M. B. (2023) · Journal of Agriculture Food Systems and Community Development · doi:10.5304/jafscd.2023.123.014 · Cited by 3
Equitable Response in Crisis: Methodology and Application for COVID-19
Trump, B. D., Jin, A. S., Galaitsi, S., Cummings, C. L., Jarman, H., Greer, S. L., Sharma, V., & Linkov, I. (2023) · ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems Part B Mechanical Engineering · doi:10.1115/1.4062683 · Cited by 3
Toward Critically Analyzing Whiteness in Immigrant Health
Cousins, S. J., & Matias, C. E. (2023) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981231178828 · Cited by 3
Silva, D. A. S., Duncan, M. J., Kuzik, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2023) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsad085 · Cited by 3
Disparities in Screening for Adverse Childhood Experiences
Alcalá, H. E., Ng, A. E., Tkach, N., Yue, D., & Sharif, M. Z. (2024) · The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine · doi:10.3122/jabfm.2023.230262r1 · Cited by 3
Association between racial iniquities and oral health status: a systematic review
dos Reis, L. A. D. O., Miranda, S. S., da Fonseca, B. R., Pereira, M. E., Natividade, M., de Aragão, E. S., Lara, T. P., & Nery, J. S. (2024) · Ciência & Saúde Coletiva · doi:10.1590/1413-81232024293.04882023en · Cited by 12
Understanding CRT and its implications for family science
Dow, D. M., & Gordon, M. S. (2024) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.13017 · Cited by 4
Harriman, N. W., Chen, J. T., Lee, S., & Slopen, N. B. (2024) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2024.05.008 · Cited by 4
Ye, L., Dong, Q., & Gasteyer, S. P. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117154 · Cited by 3
Kota, K. K., Eppink, S. T., Gant, Z., Chesson, H. W., & McCree, D. H. (2024) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000003541 · Cited by 3
Aroke, E. N., Nagidi, J. G., Srinivasasainagendra, V., Quinn, T. L., Agbor, F. B. A. T., Kinnie, K. R., Tiwari, H. K., & Goodin, B. R. (2024) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s481452 · Cited by 3
Zajdel, R. A., Rodriquez, E. J., Mejía, R. M., & Pérez‐Stable, E. J. (2025) · The Lancet Regional Health - Americas · doi:10.1016/j.lana.2024.100975 · Cited by 4
Does the Black-White mental health paradox persist across U.S. geographical regions?
Erving, C. L., Satcher, L. A., Montufar, S., & Tobin, C. S. T. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100431 · Cited by 3
Johnson, E. D., Hoge, C. E., Jahangir, T., Livingston, M. D., Komro, K. A., & Woods-Jaeger, B. A. (2025) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-025-05677-7 · Cited by 3
Informal and Formal Social Integration Shape Eating and Drinking of Older Black and White Americans
Hauschildt, K. E., & Burgard, S. A. (2019) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264319893486 · Cited by 3
Savage, B. A., Cole, P. D., Lin, H., & Thomas‐Hawkins, C. (2020) · Cancer Nursing · doi:10.1097/ncc.0000000000000872 · Cited by 3
The paradox does not fit all: Racial disparities in asthma among Mexican Americans in the U.S.
Márquez-Velarde, G. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0242855 · Cited by 3
Bhatt, P., Guo, Y., & Gong, Y. (2021) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2021.483 · Cited by 3
Epidemiology of sarcoidosis: solving the jigsaw puzzle
Cozier, Y. C., Arkema, E. V., Rodriguez, J. V., Berman, J. S., & Govender, P. (2022) · European Respiratory Society eBooks · doi:10.1183/2312508x.10031120 · Cited by 3
Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research
Pallathadka, L. K., & Pallathadka, H. (2022) · Integrated Journal for Research in Arts and Humanities · doi:10.55544/ijrah.2.6.17 · Cited by 3
A Clinical Practice Model to Promote Health Equity for Adolescents and Young Adults
Svetaz, M. V., Bring, S., & Barkley, L. C. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97205-3_15 · Cited by 3
Lee, H. H., Avenetti, D. M., Edomwande, Y., Sundararajan, V., Cui, L., Berbaum, M. L., Nordgren, R. K., Sandoval, A. S., & Martin, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Oral Health · doi:10.3389/froh.2022.962849 · Cited by 3
Wilkins, K. (2022) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-022-09739-x · Cited by 3
(2022) · Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences · doi:10.33140/jhss.05.04.07 · Cited by 3
Multigenerational Attainment and Mortality Among Older Men: An Adjacent Generations ApproachPreprint
Wolfe, J. D., Bauldry, S., Hardy, M. A., & Pavalko, E. K. (2018) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/vcxg3 · Cited by 3
Equity for Whom? The Example of Qualified Opportunity Zones
Wendel, M. L., & Jones, G. (2020) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2019.305532 · Cited by 3
Schwandt, H., Currie, J., Bär, M., Banks, J. W., Bertoli, P., Bütikofer, A., Cattan, S., Chao, B. Z.-Y., da Costa, C. H., González, L., et al. (2021) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w29203 · Cited by 3
Valentino, K., Zhen‐Duan, J., Padilla, J., & Bernard, D. L. (2023) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/10775595231191395 · Cited by 3
Alternative payment models, value-based payments, and health disparities
Edmiston, K. D. (2022) · doi:10.52227/25526.2022 · Cited by 3
Health Equity Requires Working Toward Antiracist Local Public Health Departments
Creary, M., Peoples, W. A., & Fleming, P. J. (2024) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1177/00333549241237382 · Cited by 3
Addressing Disparities in Alcohol Use Disorder Treatment: A Call to Action
Kranzler, H. R., & Vickers‐Smith, R. (2024) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20240861 · Cited by 3
Racial and economic segregation and diabetes mortality in the USA, 2016–2020
Saelee, R., Alexander, D. S., Wittman, J. T., Pavkov, M. E., Hudson, D., & Bullard, K. M. (2024) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2024-222178 · Cited by 2
Racial Differences in Coping as a Mediating Pathway from Childhood Adversity to Adult Health
Homan, K. J. (2024) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-024-09495-6 · Cited by 2
“But Did You Die?”: Intimate Partner Violence as a Social Determinant of Health
Morrow, S. (2024) · Affilia · doi:10.1177/08861099241271198 · Cited by 2
Colbeth, H., Riddell, C. A., Thomas, M. D., Mujahid, M. S., & Eisen, E. A. (2024) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2024-222094 · Cited by 2
Raza, salud y sistema sanitario: la necesidad de abordar el racismo institucional en España
González-Rábago, Y., Parra‐Casado, D. L., Jacques‐Aviñó, C., Nchama, N. M. B., & Lorenzo, J. M. (2024) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2024.102425 · Cited by 2
Self-rated pain and observed pain behavior in Black and White Americans with chronic low back pain
Jennings, M. B., Burns, J. W., Jackson, B. M., Molina, K. M., & Lumley, M. A. (2025) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2025.105338 · Cited by 2
Johnson, D. A., Ward, L. A., Medearis, K., Moore, K., & Redline, S. S. (2025) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaf048 · Cited by 2
Everyday discrimination and subclinical indicators of stroke in midlife women
Wells, J. B., Egnot, N. S., Barinas‐Mitchell, E., Brooks, M. M., Méndez, D. D., & Thurston, R. C. (2025) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-025-00568-9 · Cited by 2
Residential Segregation and Epigenetic Age Acceleration Among Older-Age Black and White Americans
DeAngelis, R. T., Fisher, V., Dou, J., Bakulski, K. M., Rigby, D., & Hicken, M. T. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22060837 · Cited by 2
Herath, K. B., & Zhang, X. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22091323 · Cited by 2
Gouda, M., & Rigterink, A. S. (2025) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.70078 · Cited by 2
Jun, W., Hao, C., & Wei, L. (2025) · Journal of Current Research in Oral Surgery · doi:10.51847/pyzuykycsb · Cited by 2
Chung, E. O., Ray, B. R., Humphrey, J. L., Lindstrom, M., Megerian, C. E., Lambdin, B. H., & Kral, A. H. (2026) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2026.113046 · Cited by 2
Oh, H. Y., Winn, J. G., Misra, S., Nallajerla, M., Besecker, M., Wong, K., Moreno, C., & Moody, M. D. (2026) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02824-9 · Cited by 2
Dissanayake, M. V., Jackson, J. W., Urrutia, R. P., Martin, C. L., Funk, M. J., & Wood, M. E. (2026) · The Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1111/jrh.70114 · Cited by 2
van Tubergen, F. (2026) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcaf054 · Cited by 2
Historically Black College or University Attendance and Cognition in US Black Adults
Thomas, M. D., Wei, C., Kim, M. H., Manly, J. J., Judd, S. E., White, J. S., Howard, V. J., Mangurian, C. V., Hamad, R., & Glymour, M. M. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.58329 · Cited by 2
Zubizarreta, D., Beccia, A. L., Matthay, E. C., Jahn, J. L., & Schnake-Mahl, A. S. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119536 · Cited by 2
The Wealth–Health Relationship by Race/Ethnicity: Evidence from a Longitudinal Perspective
Park, K., & Yang, T. (2021) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12749 · Cited by 2
Adam, C., Gendron, S., & Potvin, L. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97212-7_6 · Cited by 2
Carbajal, C., Rodríguez, T., & Proaño, D. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272553 · Cited by 2
Molitor, F., & Kehl, S. (2023) · Health Equity · doi:10.1089/heq.2022.0127 · Cited by 2
McDowell, I. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-28986-6_8 · Cited by 4
Pro, G. C., Brown, C. C., Johnson, O., Montgomery, B. E. E., & Zaller, N. D. (2023) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-023-01168-0 · Cited by 2
Seiler, S. J. (2023) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/26115 · Cited by 2
Key, K., Carrera, J. S., McMaughan, D. J., Lapeyrouse, L. M., Kteily-Hawa, R., Carter, A., Bailey, S., de Danzine, V., Blanchard, C., Hall, J., et al. (2023) · Health Equity · doi:10.1089/heq.2023.0113 · Cited by 4
Hamid, M., Gill, J., Okoh, P. D., Yanga, N., Gupta, V., Zhang, J. C., Singh, N., Matelski, J. J., Boakye, P. N., James, C. E., et al. (2023) · Kidney International Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ekir.2023.09.018 · Cited by 2
Oh, H. Y., Verdugo, J. L., Karcher, N. R., van der Ven, E., Koyanagi, A., Smith, L., & DeVylder, J. (2023) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2023.10.037 · Cited by 2
A broader conceptualization of premorbid risk in psychoses can motivate primordial prevention
Oh, H. Y., Karcher, N. R., Schiffman, J. E., Anglin, D. M., Koyanagi, A., Munson, M. R., & DeVylder, J. (2023) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2023.10.015 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- New York State Psychiatric Institute (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Sociology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2015-08-14
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 311-330
- ISSN
- 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2115
- OpenAlex
- W2107916612
- Cited by
- 1,363
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 173 · 2024: 192 · 2023: 196 · 2022: 192 · 2021: 205 · 2020: 119 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 7.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Sociology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Sage Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Keywords
- systemic racism, racial disparities in health, fundamental cause theory, socioeconomic status, racial disparities in health outcomes, power and prestige, neighborhood context, health care disparities
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
