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Cited by 6,770Social and Intergroup PsychologyEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessCareer Development and Diversity

A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance

Steele, Claude M.·1997·American Psychologist
DOI 10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613
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Abstract

A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.

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  • Research that creates new groups in the laboratory has found that merely being made aware that there is a negative stereotype about your group's ability can cause social identity threat and identity incompatibility perceptions and thus reduce performance on relevant tasks.

    “Furthermore, research that creates new groups in the laboratory has found that merely being made aware that there is a negative stereotype about your group's ability can cause social identity threat and identity incompatibility perceptions and thus reduce performance on relevant tasks (Leyens, Desert, Croizet, & Darcis, 2000;Steele, 1997).”

    From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

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  • The perception that teachers have low expectations may exacerbate the harmful effects of stereotype threat, whereby low expectations either cause emotional responses that directly harm performance or cause students to disidentify with educational environments.

    “First, the perception that teachers have low expectations may exacerbate the harmful effects of stereotype threat , whereby low expectations either cause emotional responses that directly harm performance or cause students to disidentify with educational environments (Steele, 1997).”

    From Who believes in me? The effect of student–teacher demographic match on teacher expectations (2016) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997

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  • Mere awareness of gender stereotypes can influence youths' academic performance.

    “Importantly, mere awareness of gender stereotypes can in fl uence youths ' academic performance.”

    From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997

    The paper says gender stereotypes can hamper academic performance, and its Stereotype Threat and Intellectual Performance section (pp. 7–8) reports effects on women’s math-test performance. But it specifies conditions—including a difficult, ability-relevant task and identification with math—rather than showing that mere awareness is enough. The reported experiments concern women, so they do not directly establish the claim for youths generally. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Over time stereotype threat has the potential to undermine students' identification with the relevant academic domain.

    “Importantly, over time stereotype threat also has the potential to undermine students ' identi fi cation with the relevant academic domain (e.g., Steele, 1997), which may explain some of adolescent girls ' dampened interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fi elds and boys ' dampened interest in traditionally-feminine fi elds.”

    From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997

  • Stereotype threat dwells 'in the air' in stereotype-relevant domains; even when threat is not directly and explicitly examined, stereotype threat processes are still at work when people find themselves in contexts where self-relevant negative stereotypes abound.

    “Indeed, stereotype threat dwells”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997

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Authors
Steele, C. M.
Affiliations
Stanford University (US)
Corresponding author
Steele, Claude M.
Venue
American Psychologist
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
1997-06
Volume
52
Issue
6
Pages
613-629
ISSN
  • 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
  • 1935-990X
DOI
10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613
OpenAlex
W4233188495
Cited by
6,770
References
2
Citations by year
2026: 203 · 2025: 228 · 2024: 236 · 2023: 215 · 2022: 229 · 2021: 309 · 2020: 377 · 2019: 349 · 2018: 349 · 2017: 324 · 2016: 337 · 2015: 361 · 2014: 341 · 2013: 338 · 2012: 316
FWCI
206.66
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5r01mh051977-04)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (MH51977)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
Keywords
stereotypes, intellectual identity, academic performance, threats, stereotype threat, self-concept
MeSH terms
Achievement, Adolescent, Black or African American, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Psychological Theory, Social Identification, Stereotyping, Students, Women

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