The DOI matches its Crossref record; 106 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
On Natural and Artificial Vaccinations
Abstract
This review summarizes the general parameters of cell- and antibody-mediated immune protection and the basic mechanisms responsible for what we call immunological memory. From this basis, the various successes and difficulties of vaccines are evaluated with respect to the role of antigen in maintaining protective immunity. Based on the fact that in humans during the first 12–48 months maternal antibodies from milk and serum protect against classical acute childhood and other infections, the concept is developed that maternal antibodies attenuate most infections of babies and infants and turn them into effective vaccines. If this “natural vaccination” under passive protective conditions does not occur, acute childhood diseases may be severe, unless infants are actively vaccinated with conventional vaccines early enough, i.e., in synchronization with the immune system's maturation. Although vaccines are available against the classical childhood diseases, they are not available for many seemingly milder childhood infections such as gastrointestinal and respiratory infections; these may eventually trigger immunopathological diseases. These changing balances between humans and infections caused by changes in nursing habits but also in hygiene levels may well be involved in changing disease patterns including increased frequencies of certain autoimmune and degenerative diseases.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Direct Gene Transfer into Mouse Muscle in Vivo
Wolff, J. A., Malone, R. W., Williams, P., Chong, W., Acsadi, G., Jani, A., & Felgner, P. L. (1990) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1690918 · Cited by 4,173
Functional Role of Type I and Type II Interferons in Antiviral Defense
Müller, U., Steinhoff, U., Reis, L. F. L., Hemmi, S., Pavlovic, J., Zinkernagel, R. M., & Aguet, M. (1994) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8009221 · Cited by 2,453
Self-citationDendritic cells acquire antigen from apoptotic cells and induce class I-restricted CTLs
Albert, M. L., Sauter, B., & Bhardwaj, N. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/32183 · Cited by 2,349
T cell tolerance by clonal elimination in the thymus
Kappler, J. W., Roehm, N., & Marrack, P. (1987) · Cell · doi:10.1016/0092-8674(87)90568-x · Cited by 2,211
Efficacy of BCG Vaccine in the Prevention of Tuberculosis: Meta-analysis of the Published Literature
Colditz, G. A. (1994) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510330076038 · Cited by 1,918
Vigorous HIV-1-Specific CD4 + T Cell Responses Associated with Control of Viremia
Rosenberg, E. S., Billingsley, J. M., Caliendo, A. M., Boswell, S. L., Sax, P. E., Kalams, S. A., & Walker, B. D. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.278.5342.1447 · Cited by 1,835
Immunological memory and protective immunity: understanding their relation
Ahmed, R., & Gray, D. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.272.5258.54 · Cited by 1,775
Tolerance in T-cell-receptor transgenic mice involves deletion of nonmature CD4+8+ thymocytes
Kisielow, P., Blüthmann, H., Staerz, U. D., Steinmetz, M., & von Boehmer, H. (1988) · Nature · doi:10.1038/333742a0 · Cited by 1,682
Hepatitis B Virus Immunopathogenesis
Chisari, F. V. (1995) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.13.1.29 · Cited by 1,609
Tuberculosis: Commentary on a Reemergent Killer
Bloom, B. R., & Murray, C. J. L. (1992) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.257.5073.1055 · Cited by 1,373
Cited by
Vaccine delivery: a matter of size, geometry, kinetics and molecular patterns
Bachmann, M. F., & Jennings, G. T. (2010) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2868 · Cited by 2,106
Wu, F., Wang, A., Liu, M., Wang, Q., Chen, J., Xia, S., Ling, Y., Zhang, Y., Xun, J., Lu, L., et al. (2020) · doi:10.1101/2020.03.30.20047365 · Cited by 754
Teijaro, J. R., Turner, D., Pham, Q., Wherry, E. J., Lefrançois, L., & Farber, D. L. (2011) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1102243 · Cited by 641
Peripheral development of B cells in mouse and man
Carsetti, R., Rosado, M. M., & Wardmann, H. (2004) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.0109.x · Cited by 473
Immunological memory: lessons from the past and a look to the future
Farber, D. L., Netea, M. G., Radbruch, A., Rajewsky, K., & Zinkernagel, R. M. (2016) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri.2016.13 · Cited by 200
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Zinkernagel, R. M.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Immunology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2003-04
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 515-546
- ISSN
- 0732-0582 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-3278
- OpenAlex
- W2117156406
- Cited by
- 309
- References
- 106
- FWCI
- 1.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: On Natural and Artificial Vaccinations. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141045
- The paper
- Zinkernagel, R. M. (2003). On Natural and Artificial Vaccinations. Annual Review of Immunology. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141045
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
