Cited by 4,377Neurobiology of Language and BilingualismReading and Literacy DevelopmentCategorization, perception, and language

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Thirty years and counting: finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP).

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Kutas, Marta, Federmeier, Kara D.·2011·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.131123PMC PMC4052444

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Abstract

We review the discovery, characterization, and evolving use of the N400, an event-related brain potential response linked to meaning processing. We describe the elicitation of N400s by an impressive range of stimulus types—including written, spoken, and signed words or pseudowords; drawings, photos, and videos of faces, objects, and actions; sounds; and mathematical symbols—and outline the sensitivity of N400 amplitude (as its latency is remarkably constant) to linguistic and nonlinguistic manipulations. We emphasize the effectiveness of the N400 as a dependent variable for examining almost every aspect of language processing and highlight its expanding use to probe semantic memory and to determine how the neurocognitive system dynamically and flexibly uses bottom-up and top-down information to make sense of the world. We conclude with different theories of the N400's functional significance and offer an N400-inspired reconceptualization of how meaning processing might unfold.

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Authors: Kutas, M., & Federmeier, K. D.
Affiliations: Departments of Cognitive Science and Neurosciences, Center for Research in Language, Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San Diego, California 92093;
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Federmeier, Kara D.
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2011-01-10
Volume: 62
Issue: 1
Pages: 621-647
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.131123
PMC: PMC4052444
OpenAlex: W2141138276
Cited by: 4,377
References: 106
Citations by year: 2026: 317 · 2025: 354 · 2024: 323 · 2023: 302 · 2022: 312 · 2021: 358 · 2020: 434 · 2019: 346 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 274 · 2016: 237 · 2015: 266 · 2014: 220 · 2013: 166 · 2012: 136
FWCI: 8.31
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (R01AG008313, AG26308, R01AG026308, AG83013)
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD022614, R01HD022614)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
Keywords: N400, event-related potentials, semantic processing, semantic memory, language processing, meaning processing, top-down processing, bottom-up processing, word recognition, pseudowords, mathematical symbols
MeSH terms: Brain, Brain Mapping, Electroencephalography, Evoked Potentials, Humans, Language, Memory

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Thirty years and counting: finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP).

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