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Thirty years and counting: finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP).
Open accessAbstract
We review the discovery, characterization, and evolving use of the N400, an event-related brain potential response linked to meaning processing. We describe the elicitation of N400s by an impressive range of stimulus types—including written, spoken, and signed words or pseudowords; drawings, photos, and videos of faces, objects, and actions; sounds; and mathematical symbols—and outline the sensitivity of N400 amplitude (as its latency is remarkably constant) to linguistic and nonlinguistic manipulations. We emphasize the effectiveness of the N400 as a dependent variable for examining almost every aspect of language processing and highlight its expanding use to probe semantic memory and to determine how the neurocognitive system dynamically and flexibly uses bottom-up and top-down information to make sense of the world. We conclude with different theories of the N400's functional significance and offer an N400-inspired reconceptualization of how meaning processing might unfold.
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“N400 is related to semantic processing that is elicited by various kinds of stimuli, such as words, speech, and pictures (for a review, see Kutas and Federmeier, 2011).”
From Advantage of Handwriting Over Typing on Learning Words: Evidence From an N400 Event-Related Potential Index (2021) · cites this paper as Kutas and Federmeier, 2011
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“We draw on evidence from an electrophysiological measure that has been shown to be extremely useful for studying the timeline of semantic processing: the N400 (already mentioned in Section 2; for reviews see Hagoort & van Berkum, 2007;Kutas and Federmeier, 2011;van Berkum et al., 2005).”
From Grounding the neurobiology of language in first principles: The necessity of non-language-centric explanations for language comprehension (2018) · cites this paper as Kutas and Federmeier, 2011
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kutas, M., & Federmeier, K. D.
- Affiliations
- Departments of Cognitive Science and Neurosciences, Center for Research in Language, Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San Diego, California 92093;
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- ORCID
- Federmeier, Kara D.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2011-01-10
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 621-647
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- PMC
- PMC4052444
- OpenAlex
- W2141138276
- Cited by
- 4,377
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 317 · 2025: 354 · 2024: 323 · 2023: 302 · 2022: 312 · 2021: 358 · 2020: 434 · 2019: 346 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 274 · 2016: 237 · 2015: 266 · 2014: 220 · 2013: 166 · 2012: 136
- FWCI
- 8.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG008313, AG26308, R01AG026308, AG83013)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD022614, R01HD022614)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Keywords
- N400, event-related potentials, semantic processing, semantic memory, language processing, meaning processing, top-down processing, bottom-up processing, word recognition, pseudowords, mathematical symbols
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Brain Mapping, Electroencephalography, Evoked Potentials, Humans, Language, Memory
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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