Vicarious retribution: the role of collective blame in intergroup aggression

Lickel, Brian; Miller, Norman; Stenstrom, Douglas M.; Denson, Thomas F.; Schmader, Toni

doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_6

Cited by 345Social and Intergroup PsychologyBullying, Victimization, and AggressionDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

Vicarious retribution: the role of collective blame in intergroup aggression

Lickel, Brian, Miller, Norman, Stenstrom, Douglas M., Denson, Thomas F., Schmader, Toni·2006·Personality and Social Psychology Review

DOI 10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_6

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Abstract

We provide a new framework for understanding 1 aspect of aggressive conflict between groups, which we refer to as vicarious retribution. Vicarious retribution occurs when a member of a group commits an act of aggression toward the members of an outgroup for an assault or provocation that had no personal consequences for him or her but which did harm a fellow ingroup member. Furthermore, retribution is often directed at outgroup members who, themselves, were not the direct causal agents in the original attack against the person's ingroup. Thus, retribution is vicarious in that neither the agent of retaliation nor the target of retribution were directly involved in the original event that precipitated the intergroup conflict. We describe how ingroup identification, outgroup entitativity, and other variables, such as group power, influence vicarious retribution. We conclude by considering a variety of conflict reduction strategies in light of this new theoretical framework.

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The manipulations motivated participants of the Revenge (vs. Control) group to view the involved ingroup member more frequently as a victim during intergroup conflict.
“The results are consistent with previous findings (Ross and Ward, 1995; Lickel et al., 2006) and suggest that our manipulations motivated participants of the Revenge (vs. Control) group to view the involved ingroup member more frequently as a victim during intergroup conflict.”
From A neurobiological association of revenge propensity during intergroup conflict (2020) · cites this paper as Lickel et al., 2006

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The Roles of Ingroup Identification and Outgroup Entitativity in Intergroup Retribution
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The Morality of Groups
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Homicide: Foundations of Human Behavior
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The Mental Representations Of High And Low Entitativity Groups
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A sense of self-perceived collective victimhood in intractable conflicts
Bar-Tal, D., Chernyak-Hai, L., Schori, N., & Gundar, A. (2009) · International Review of the Red Cross · doi:10.1017/s1816383109990221 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Their pain gives us pleasure: How intergroup dynamics shape empathic failures and counter-empathic responses
Cikara, M., Bruneau, E., Bavel, J. J. V., & Saxe, R. R. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.007 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Cognitive systems for revenge and forgiveness
McCullough, M. E., Kurzban, R., & Tabak, B. A. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11002160 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood Between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts
Noor, M., Shnabel, N., Halabi, S., & Nadler, A. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868312440048 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Why Individuals Protest the Perceived Transgressions of Their Country
Iyer, A., Schmader, T., & Lickel, B. A. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206297402 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Altruism Born of Suffering and Prosocial Behavior Following Adverse Life Events: A Review and Conceptualization
Vollhardt, J. R. (2009) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-009-0088-1 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
The Neuroscience of Intergroup Relations
Cikara, M., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2014) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614527464 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Historical Events and Spaces of Hate: Hate Crimes against Arabs and Muslims in Post-9/11 America
Disha, I., Cavendish, J. C., & King, R. D. (2011) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2011.58.1.21 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
The infection of bad company: Stigma by association.
Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., & Monroe, A. E. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026270 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
The social psychology of collective victimhood
Noor, M., Vollhardt, J. R., Mari, S., & Nadler, A. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2300 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Intergroup Relations
Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Demoulin, S. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002028 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Collective Victimization
Vollhardt, J. R. (2012) · The Oxford Handbook of Intergroup Conflict · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199747672.013.0009 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Norm Dynamics: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Social Norm Emergence, Persistence, and Change
Gelfand, M. J., Gavrilets, S., & Nunn, N. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-033020-013319 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Parochial Empathy Predicts Reduced Altruism and the Endorsement of Passive Harm
Bruneau, E., Cikara, M., & Saxe, R. R. (2017) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617693064 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
The I3 Model
Finkel, E. J. (2013) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800052-6.00001-9 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Revenge: a multilevel review and synthesis
Jackson, J. C., Choi, V. K., & Gelfand, M. J. (2019) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103305 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Conflict, Delegitimization, and Violence
Bar‐Tal, D., & Hammack, P. L. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199747672.013.0003 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Collective Narcissism Predicts Hypersensitivity to In–group Insult and Direct and Indirect Retaliatory Intergroup Hostility
Golec de Zavala, A., Peker, M., Guerra, R., & Baran, T. (2016) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2067 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
HIGH TIMES FOR HATE CRIMES: EXPLAINING THE TEMPORAL CLUSTERING OF HATE‐MOTIVATED OFFENDING
King, R. D., & Sutton, G. M. (2013) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12022 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Social Conflict: The Emergence and Consequences of Struggle and Negotiation
Dreu, C. K. W. D. (2010) · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002027 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Guilt, Shame, and Reparative Behavior: The Effect of Psychological Proximity
Ghorbani, M., Liao, Y., Çayköylü, S., & Chand, M. (2012) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1350-2 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
The rise and fall of cooperation through reputation and group polarization
Gross, J., & Dreu, C. K. W. D. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-08727-8 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
The role of victim beliefs in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: Risk or potential for peace?
Vollhardt, J. R. (2009) · Peace and Conflict Journal of Peace Psychology · doi:10.1080/10781910802544373 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
The Benefits, Costs, and Paradox of Revenge
Schumann, K., & Ross, M. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00322.x · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Fear and anger as predictors of motivation for intergroup aggression: Evidence from Serbia and Republika Srpska
Spanovic, M., Lickel, B. A., Denson, T. F., & Petrović, N. (2010) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430210374483 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Taking Up Offenses: Secondhand Forgiveness and Group Identification
Brown, R. P., Wohl, M., & Exline, J. J. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208321538 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
‘Cologne Changed Everything’—The Effect of Threatening Events on the Frequency and Distribution of Intergroup Conflict in Germany
Frey, A. (2020) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcaa007 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Pursuing moral outrage: Anger at torture
Batson, C. D., Chao, M. C., & Givens, J. M. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.07.017 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Close Cousins or Distant Relatives? The Relationship Between Terrorism and Hate Crime
Deloughery, K., King, R. D., & Asal, V. H. (2012) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128712452956 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
When rejection by one fosters aggression against many: Multiple-victim aggression as a consequence of social rejection and perceived groupness
Gaertner, L., Iuzzini, J., & O’Mara, E. M. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.02.004 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Extreme Hatred: Revisiting the Hate Crime and Terrorism Relationship to Determine Whether They Are “Close Cousins” or “Distant Relatives”
Mills, C. E., Freilich, J. D., & Chermak, S. M. (2015) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128715620626 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
The cost of anti-Asian racism during the COVID-19 pandemic
Huang, J. T., Krupenkin, M., Rothschild, D. M., & Lee, J. (2023) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-022-01493-6 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Priming us and them: Automatic assimilation and contrast in group attitudes.
Ledgerwood, A., & Chaiken, S. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.940 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
The Roles of Ingroup Identification and Outgroup Entitativity in Intergroup Retribution
Stenstrom, D. M., Lickel, B. A., Denson, T. F., & Miller, N. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208322999 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Atoning for Colonial Injustices: Group-Based Shame and Guilt Motivate Support for Reparation
Allpress, J. A., Barlow, F. K., Brown, R. J., & Louis, W. R. (2010) · doi:10.4119/ijcv-2816 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Victim and Perpetrator Groups’ Divergent Perspectives on Collective Violence: Implications for Intergroup Relations
Bilali, R., & Vollhardt, J. R. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12570 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Ingroup Identification and Group-Level Narcissism as Predictors of U.S. Citizens’ Attitudes and Behavior Toward Arab Immigrants
Lyons, P. A., Kenworthy, J. B., & Popan, J. R. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210380604 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Corporations are Cyborgs: Organizations elicit anger but not sympathy when they can think but cannot feel
Rai, T. S., & Diermeier, D. A. (2014) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.10.001 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Understanding intergroup conflicts in tourism
Chien, P. M., & Ritchie, B. W. (2018) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2018.03.004 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Emotions during the Covid‐19 pandemic: Fear, anxiety, and anger as mediators between threats and policy support and political actions
Renström, E. A., & Bäck, H. (2021) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12806 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
A Systems Perspective on Forgiveness in Organizations
Bies, R. J., Barclay, L. J., Tripp, T. M., & Aquino, K. F. (2016) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/19416520.2016.1120956 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Vicarious Intergroup Contact and the Role of Authorities in Prejudice Reduction
Gómez, Á., & Huici, C. (2008) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/s1138741600004169 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The Communication of “Pure” Group-Based Anger Reduces Tendencies Toward Intergroup Conflict Because It Increases Out-Group Empathy
de Vos, B., van Zomeren, M., Gordijn, E., & Postmes, T. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213489140 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The Shadows of the Past
Schori-Eyal, N., Klar, Y., Roccas, S., & McNeill, A. R. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216689063 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Why do we punish groups? High entitativity promotes moral suspicion
Newheiser, A., Sawaoka, T., & Dovidio, J. F. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.013 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Empathy, Target Distress, and Neurohormone Genes Interact to Predict Aggression for Others–Even Without Provocation
Buffone, A. E. K., & Poulin, M. J. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214549320 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Exploring the Consequences of Humiliating a Moral Transgressor
Combs, D. J. Y., Campbell, G., Jackson, M., & Smith, R. H. (2010) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973531003738379 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
The Mistreatment of My People: Victimization by Proxy and Behavioral Intentions to Commit Violence Among Muslims in Denmark
Obaidi, M., Bergh, R., Sidanius, J., & Thomsen, L. (2017) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12435 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The Trump Effect: How 2016 Campaign Rallies Explain Spikes in Hate
Feinberg, A. K., Branton, R. P., & Martinez‐Ebers, V. (2022) · PS Political Science & Politics · doi:10.1017/s1049096521001621 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Emotion and aggressive intergroup cognitions: The ANCODI hypothesis
Matsumoto, D., Hwang, H. C., & Frank, M. G. (2016) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21666 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Callous-Unemotional Traits, Proactive Aggression, and Treatment Outcomes of Aggressive Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Blader, J. C., Pliszka, S. R., Kafantaris, V., Foley, C. A., Crowell, J. A., Carlson, G. A., Sauder, C. L., Margulies, D. M., Sinha, C., Sverd, J., et al. (2013) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.08.024 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
I’ll Never Forgive You: High Conflict Divorce, Social Network, and Co-Parenting Conflicts
Visser, M. M., Finkenauer, C., Schoemaker, K., Kluwer, E. S., van der Rijken, R., van Lawick, J., Bom, H., de Schipper, J. C., & Lamers-Winkelman, F. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0821-6 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Did Covid-19 Lead to an Increase in Hate Crimes Toward Chinese People in London?
Gray, C., & Hansen, K. (2021) · Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/10439862211027994 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
A Whole Other Story
Adelman, L., Leidner, B., Ünal, H., Nahhas, E. A. H., & Shnabel, N. (2016) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216662868 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Threatening Events and Anti-Refugee Violence: An Empirical Analysis in the Wake of the Refugee Crisis during the Years 2015 and 2016 in Germany
Jäckle, S., & König, P. D. (2018) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcy038 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Adherence to perceived norms across cultural boundaries: The role of need for cognitive closure and ingroup identification
Chao, M. M., Zhang, Z.-X., & Chiu, C. (2009) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430209343115 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Discriminatory peer aggression among children as a function of minority status and group proportion in school context
Durkin, K., Hunter, S. C., Levin, K. A., Bergin, D., Heim, D., & Howe, C. J. (2011) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.870 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A neurobiological association of revenge propensity during intergroup conflict
Han, X., Gelfand, M. J., Wu, B., Zhang, T., Li, W., Gao, T., Pang, C., Wu, T., Zhou, Y., Zhou, S., et al. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.52014 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Vicarious Revenge and the Death of Osama bin Laden
Gollwitzer, M., Skitka, L. J., Wisneski, D. C., Sjöström, A., Liberman, P., Nazir, S. J., & Bushman, B. J. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214521466 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The rhetorical complexity of competitive and common victimhood in conversational discourse
McNeill, A. R., Pehrson, S., & Stevenson, C. (2017) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2255 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Anger and its consequences for judgment and behavior: Recent developments in social and political psychology
Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., & Hanson, E. J. (2019) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.12.001 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Interventions Highlighting Hypocrisy Reduce Collective Blame of Muslims for Individual Acts of Violence and Assuage Anti-Muslim Hostility
Bruneau, E., Kteily, N., & Falk, E. B. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167217744197 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Parochial cooperation in nested intergroup dilemmas is reduced when it harms out-groups.
Aaldering, H., Velden, F. S. T., Kleef, G. A. V., & Dreu, C. K. W. D. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000125 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Ideology and Mass Killing
Maynard, J. L. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198776796.001.0001 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Retribution and Revenge
Lickel, B. A. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199747672.013.0006 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Not One of Us”
Kteily, N., Cotterill, S., Sidanius, J., Sheehy-Skeffington, J. A., & Bergh, R. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214539708 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
The cultural contagion of conflict
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Authors: Lickel, B., Miller, N., Stenstrom, D. M., Denson, T. F., & Schmader, T.
Affiliations: University of Southern California (US)
University of Arizona (US)
ORCID: Denson, Thomas F.
Schmader, Toni
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2006-11
Volume: 10
Issue: 4
Pages: 372-390
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_6
OpenAlex: W1989434673
Cited by: 345
References: 156
Citations by year: 2026: 16 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 17
FWCI: 3.11
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: intergroup aggression, intergroup conflict, ingroup identification, group power, retaliation
MeSH terms: Aggression, Cognition, Group Processes, Guilt, Humans, Motivation, Social Behavior, Social Perception

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Vicarious retribution: the role of collective blame in intergroup aggression

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