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Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior
Open accessAbstract
Abstract Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior. This chapter reviews current theory and research on moral emotions. We first focus on a triad of negatively valenced “self-conscious” emotions—shame, guilt, and embarrassment. As in previous decades, much research remains focused on shame and guilt. We review current thinking on the distinction between shame and guilt, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two moral emotions. Several new areas of research are highlighted: research on the domain-specific phenomenon of body shame, styles of coping with shame, psychobiological aspects of shame, the link between childhood abuse and later proneness to shame, and the phenomena of vicarious or “collective” experiences of shame and guilt. In recent years, the concept of moral emotions has been expanded to include several positive emotions—elevation, gratitude, and the sometimes morally relevant experience of pride. Finally, we discuss briefly a morally relevant emotional process—other-oriented empathy.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that moral emotions moderate the link between moral standards and moral behavior, with guilt generally more adaptive and shame more often maladaptive. It synthesizes theory and research on shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride, elevation, gratitude, and other-oriented empathy.
Key findings
- Shame and guilt are distinguished by focus on the global self versus a specific behavior; event-type and public/private distinctions are not well supported. In one cited study, when participants were asked about exposure of an inferior self, only 6.7% identified the feeling as shame (twice as many identified guilt); in a moral-exposure condition, embarrassment was the modal emotion, three times more common than shame.
- Guilt-proneness is linked to reparative action, other-oriented empathy, constructive anger responses, and less antisocial/risky behavior. Fifth-grade shame-free guilt predicted lower adolescent arrest, conviction, and incarceration, more safe sex, and less drug abuse while controlling for family income and mothers’ education; among jail inmates, guilt-proneness negatively predicted recidivism and substance abuse during the first year post-release. In Stuewig et al. (2006), across four samples, externalization of blame mediated shame-proneness and verbal/physical aggression, while guilt-proneness showed a direct inverse relationship to aggression in three of four samples.
- Shame-proneness is linked to hiding/defensiveness, anger and aggression, psychological symptoms (low self-esteem, depression, anxiety, eating disorder symptoms, PTSD, suicidal ideation), and risky/illegal behavior; the review finds virtually no evidence for shame’s presumed adaptive inhibitory function. Psychobiologically, shame uniquely predicted proinflammatory cytokine response, and among people with HIV, persistent shame predicted t-cell decline.
- Positive moral emotions and empathy are also reviewed: elevation, gratitude, and pride; gratitude is linked to well-being and resilience, and other-oriented empathy is linked to altruistic helping, whereas self-oriented personal distress is unrelated to altruism and may interfere with prosocial behavior.
Methods
- Narrative review of current theory and research on moral emotions; no primary data collection.
- Synthesizes prior empirical and theoretical work across children, adolescents, college students, adults, clinical/trauma samples, and jail inmates, as cited.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis of shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride, elevation, gratitude, and empathy in relation to moral standards, moral decisions, and moral behavior.
Limitations
- Stated: “owing to space limitations,” the chapter focuses on processes upstream from intentions; little research has examined relations between moral standards and moral emotional factors or their interactive influence. Also stated: childhood abuse–shame findings are mixed due to different measures and conceptualizations, retrospective reports have known weaknesses, and some cited studies used small samples.
- Evident: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, meta-analysis, or primary empirical test; conclusions depend on the cited literature and the authors’ framework.
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Claims the paper makes
133 Not checked yet · 42 Own interpretation · 18 No basis given · 2 Own method · 1 Own result
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the self-conscious moral emotions can exert a strong influence on moral choice and behavior by providing critical feedback regarding both anticipated behavior (feedback in the form of anticipatory shame, guilt, or pride) and actual behavior (feedback in the form of consequential shame, guilt, or pride).”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: People can anticipate their likely emotional reactions, such as guilt versus pride/self-approval, as they consider behavioral alternatives.
- Rests on an assumption: People’s anticipatory emotional reactions are typically inferred based on their history—that is, based on their past consequential emotions in reaction to similar actual behaviors and events.
In the paper
“Even more to the point, the frequency with which others were aware of the respondents’ behavior did not vary as a function of shame and guilt, in direct contradiction to the public/private distinction.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Physiological research has linked the shame experience with elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokine and cortisol (Dickerson et al. 2004a), which can trigger postural signs of deference and self-concealment”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dickerson et al. 2004a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Similarly, in a study of personal emotion narratives, Tracy & Robins (2006) found that, relative to guilt, shame was elicited somewhat more frequently by achievement events and personal events, which are each more private than relational and familial events.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tracy & Robins 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nonetheless, shame is considered the more painful emotion because one’s core self—not simply one’s behavior—is at stake.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In short, from this broader cultural perspective, shame and guilt are emotions each primarily evoked by moral lapses.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shweder et al. 1997
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although this distinction may, at first glance, appear rather subtle, empirical research supports that this differential emphasis on self (“I did that horrible thing”) versus behavior (“I did that horrible thing”) sets the stage for very different emotional experiences and very different patterns of motivations and subsequent behavior.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lewis 1971
- Not checked yetcites Tangney & Dearing 2002
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In the paper
“Marschall (1996) found that people induced to feel shame subsequently reported less empathy for a disabled student, especially among low-shame-prone individuals.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marschall 1996
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As it turns out, empirical research has failed to support this public/private distinction in terms of the actual structure of the emotion-eliciting situation (Tangney et al. 1994, 1996a).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1994
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1996a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research on emotional dispositions (Joireman 2004; Leith & Baumeister 1998; Tangney 1991, 1995b; Tangney & Dearing 2002) demonstrates that guilt-proneness consistently correlates with measures of perspective-taking and empathic concern.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Joireman 2004
- Not checked yetcites Leith & Baumeister 1998
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1991
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 58
- Probably not a substantial claim. 35
In the paper
“On the whole, empirical evidence evaluating the action tendencies of people experiencing shame and guilt suggests that guilt promotes constructive, proactive pursuits, whereas shame promotes defensiveness, interpersonal separation, and distance.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1996a
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One of the consistent themes emerging from empirical research is that shame and guilt are not equally “moral” emotions. On balance, guilt appears to be the more adaptive emotion, benefiting individuals and their relationships in a variety of ways (Baumeister et al. 1994, 1995a,b; Tangney 1991, 1995a,b), but there is growing evidence that shame is a moral emotion that can easily go awry (Tangney 1”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baumeister et al. 1994
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1991
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1995a,b
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“According to Lewis (1971), shame involves a negative evaluation of the global self; guilt involves a negative evaluation of a specific behavior.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lewis 1971
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, a systematic analysis of the social context of personal shame- and guilt-eliciting events described by several hundred children and adults (Tangney et al. 1994) indicated that shame and guilt are equally likely to be experienced in the presence of others. Solitary shame experiences were about as common as solitary guilt experiences.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1994
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Moral emotions provide the motivational force—the power and energy— to do good and to avoid doing bad (Kroll & Egan 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kroll & Egan 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“On the one hand, shame corresponds with attempts to deny, hide, or escape the shame-inducing situation. Physiological research has linked the shame experience with elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokine and cortisol (Dickerson et al. 2004a), which can trigger postural signs of deference and self-concealment (see New Directions in Research on Shame and Guilt: Physiological Correlates of Shame”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ketelaar & Au 2003
- Not checked yetcites Lewis 1971
- Not checked yetcites Lindsay-Hartz 1984
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In fact, compared with those who are not shame-prone, shame-prone individuals are more likely to engage in externalization of blame, experience intense anger, and express that anger in destructive ways, including direct physical, verbal, and symbolic aggression, indirect aggression (e.g., harming something important to the target, talking behind the target’s back), all manner of displaced aggr”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney & Dearing 2002
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, shame-proneness is (depending on assessment method) negatively or negligibly correlated with other-oriented empathy and positively linked with the tendency to focus egocentrically on one’s own distress.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1991
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1995b
- Not checked yetcites Tangney & Dearing 2002
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“From this perspective, shame-prone individuals would be more susceptible to both anticipatory and consequential experiences of shame, relative to their less shame-prone peers.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1990
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Shame’s inherently egocentric focus on the “bad self” (as opposed to the bad behavior) derails the empathic process. Individuals in the throes of shame turn tightly inward, and are thus less able to focus cognitive and emotional resources on the harmed other (Tangney et al. 1994). In contrast, people experiencing guilt are specifically focused on the bad behavior, which in turn highlights the neg”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Guilt, on the other hand, is typically a less devastating, less painful experience because the object of condemnation is a specific behavior, not the entire self.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Most recently, for example, Tracy & Robins (2006) employed both experimental and correlational methods showing that internal, stable, uncontrollable attributions for failure were positively related to shame, whereas internal, unstable, controllable attributions for failure were positively related to guilt.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tracy & Robins 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: People’s moral standards are dictated in part by universal moral laws and in part by culturally specific proscriptions.
In the paper
“Tangney et al. (1994) found that when describing shame-inducing situations, respondents expressed more concern with others’ evaluations of the self. In contrast, when describing guilt experiences, respondents were more concerned with their effect on others.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1994
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Specifically, guilt goes hand in hand with other-oriented empathy. Feelings of shame, in contrast, apparently disrupt individuals’ ability to form empathic connections with others.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Joireman 2004
- Not checked yetcites Leith & Baumeister 1998
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1991
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The moral emotions appear to be well established by middle childhood and have implications for moral behavior for years to come (Tangney & Dearing 2002).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney & Dearing 2002
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Children prone to shame-free guilt in the fifth grade were, in adolescence, less likely to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated. They were more likely to practice safe sex, and they were less likely to abuse drugs. Importantly, these findings held when controlling for family income and mothers’ education.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney & Dearing 2002
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The propensity to experience “shame-free” guilt in response to clear transgressions is generally unrelated to psychological problems, whereas shame is consistently associated with maladaptive processes and outcomes at multiple levels.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney & Dearing 2002
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Shame proneness was significantly correlated with perpetration of psychological abuse, and men’s anger mediated this relationship.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Harper et al. 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Compared with their nonguilt-prone peers, guilt-prone individuals are less likely to engage in direct, indirect, and displaced aggression when angered. And they report positive long-term consequences to their anger (Tangney et al. 1996a).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney et al. 1996a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, in a study of anger episodes among romantically involved couples, shamed partners were significantly more angry, more likely to engage in aggressive behavior, and less likely to elicit conciliatory behavior from their perpetrating significant other (Tangney 1995b).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney 1995b
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They found that the negatively valenced emotions of shame and anger resulted in higher levels of cardiovascular reactivity than pride; importantly, participants in the shame condition showed higher peripheral resistance (associated with hypertension) and participants in the anger condition showed higher cardiac contractility (associated with coronary disease).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Herrald & Tomaka (2002)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Individuals in the social evaluation condition reported more shame (and lower self-esteem) than did individuals in the nonevaluative condition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gruenewald et al. (2004)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Bennett et al. (2005) report an association between physical abuse and nonverbal shame, although there was not a significant relationship for neglect.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bennett et al. (2005)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Less attention has been directed toward how people cope with aversive feelings of shame and guilt.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Attack Other bears considerable resemblance to the TOSCA Externalization of Blame scale.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, severely punitive parenting practices may engender in children feelings of helplessness and self-blame, which may then lead to a globalized sense of shame.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Consistent with theory differentiating shame and guilt, shame uniquely predicted this immune-related response; changes in neither guilt nor general negative affect significantly predicted changes in the cytokine response.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As one might expect, of the four scales of the COSS-4, the Withdrawal and Attack Self scales are most highly correlated with shame, as well as measures of more general psychological adjustment (Elison et al. 2006a,b).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Elison et al. 2006a,b
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The use of different terms to describe similar types of response most likely reflects differences in theoretical formulation.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
““Body shame” has been consistently associated with self-objectification and eating disorder symptoms (Hallsworth et al. 2005).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hallsworth et al. 2005
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although heart rate and systolic blood pressure increased in both the social evaluative and nonevaluative conditions, the response was somewhat more marked in the social evaluative condition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gruenewald et al. (2004)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a sample of undergraduates, Campbell & Elison (2005) found that both subscales of the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRPS) were negatively related to the guilt-like Adaptive Response to Shame scale and positively related to Attack Others and Avoidance scales.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Campbell & Elison (2005)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“More importantly, these same participants evidenced increased proinflammatory cytokine activity from pretest to post-test, and this response was significantly predicted by increases in self-reported shame.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And Avoidance resembles the TOSCA Detachment scale (although the TOSCA Detachment scale appears less internally consistent than the COSS-4 Avoidance scale).”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Although Hoglund & Nicholas (1995) reported no relationship between a history of physical abuse and shame-proneness, they did find a link between shame-proneness and history of emotional abuse.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hoglund & Nicholas (1995)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research has shown that embarrassability is associated with neuroticism, high levels of negative affect, self-consciousness, and a fear of negative evaluation from others (Edelmann & McCusker 1986, Leary & Meadows 1991, Miller 1995b).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Edelmann & McCusker 1986
- Not checked yetcites Leary & Meadows 1991
- Not checked yetcites Miller 1995b
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In sum, the findings regarding the relationship between childhood abuse and subsequent difficulties with shame are mixed, no doubt due in part to the fact that studies have employed different measures and conceptualizations of both maltreatment and shame (Berliner 2005).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Berliner 2005
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As with personal guilt experiences, group-based guilt has been associated with empathy (Zebel et al. 2004) and a motivation to repair or make amends (Iyer et al. 2003, Lickel et al. 2005, Swim & Miller 1999, Zebel et al. 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zebel et al. 2004
- Not checked yetcites Iyer et al. 2003
- Not checked yetcites Lickel et al. 2005
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To the extent that the self is, in part, defined by our interpersonal relations and group memberships, it is possible to construe the behavior of an in-group member as reflecting on the self.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: The self is partly defined by interpersonal relations and group memberships.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other common embarrassment-inducing situations include awkward social interactions and being conspicuous (e.g., during the “birthday” song).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“From their perspective, pride serves to enhance people’s self-worth and, perhaps more importantly, to encourage future behavior that conforms to social standards of worth or merit (see also Barrett 1995).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mascolo & Fischer (1995)
- Not checked yetcites Barrett 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, neither Alessandri & Lewis (1996), using observational measures of shame, nor Stuewig & McCloskey (2005), using self-reports of shame-proneness, found a relationship between history of sexual abuse and shame, but both studied small samples of sexually abused individuals.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Alessandri & Lewis (1996)
- Not checked yetcites Stuewig & McCloskey (2005)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Vicarious guilt, on the other hand, is more likely when one’s interpersonal dependence with the perpetrator is salient, and when relational-based concerns are highlighted by a focus on harm to another group or individual.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lickel et al. 2005
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, individuals who disclosed their abuse histories expressed more shame verbally, whereas those who did not disclose expressed more shame nonverbally, relative to control participants.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To date most theory and research on moral affect has emphasized the negatively valenced self-conscious quadrant.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Current conceptualizations of empathy integrate both affective and cognitive components.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Just as disgust is the moral emotion people experience when observing violations of the ethic of divinity, elevation is the positive emotion elicited when observing others behaving in a particularly virtuous, commendable, or superhuman way (Haidt 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haidt 2000
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In parallel to the self-versus-behavior distinction of guilt and shame, it may be useful to distinguish between two types of pride.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Others have distinguished between other-oriented empathy and self-oriented personal distress (Batson 1990, Batson & Coke 1981, Davis 1983).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Batson 1990
- Not checked yetcites Batson & Coke 1981
- Not checked yetcites Davis 1983
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In his work, Haidt focuses primarily on the emotions of elevation and gratitude—emotions that are experienced when observing the admirable deeds of others, and that then motivate observers to engage in admirable deeds themselves.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haidt (2000, 2003)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Little empirical research has been conducted on individual differences in proneness to pride in self (or pride in behavior, for that matter).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Eisenberg (1986) explains that sympathy involves feelings of concern for the emotional state of another, but does not necessarily involve the vicarious experience of the other person’s feelings or emotions (e.g., emotional matching).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eisenberg (1986)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anger is a negatively valenced, other-focused emotion not typically considered in the morally relevant sphere.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Along similar lines, Tangney (1990) distinguished between “alpha” pride (pride in self) and “beta” pride (pride in behavior), M.Lewis (1992) distinguished between hubris (pride-fulness) and pride (experienced in reference to a specific action or behavior), and Tracy & Robins (2004b) distinguished between hubris and more event-specific achievement-oriented pride.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tangney (1990)
- Not checked yetcites M.Lewis (1992)
- Not checked yetcites Tracy & Robins (2004b)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In this respect, elevation appears to be the quintessential positive emotion, especially apt to foster a “broaden and build” (Frederickson 2000) orientation to the world.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Frederickson 2000
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to the other moral emotions discussed in this review, empathy is not a discrete emotion. Rather it is an emotional process with substantial implications for moral behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“She suggests that empathic responsiveness requires three interrelated skills or capacities: (a) the cognitive ability to take another person’s perspective, (b) the cognitive ability to accurately recognize and discriminate another person’s affective experience, and (c) the affective ability to personally experience a range of emotions (since empathy involves sharing another person’s emotional”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Feshbach (1975)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, one may feel concern (sympathy) for an angered individual without being vicariously angered oneself (an empathic reaction).”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The emotions of contempt and disgust also stem from negative evaluations of others, but seem somewhat less apt than righteous anger to motivate morally corrective action.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other-oriented empathy involves taking another person’s perspective and vicariously experiencing similar feelings.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They observe that grateful people are often motivated to respond prosocially— both to their benefactor and toward others not involved in the gratitude-eliciting act.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McCullough et al. (2001)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“McCullough et al. (2001) classify gratitude as a moral affect, not because the experience and expression of gratitude is in and of itself “moral,” but because feelings of gratitude (a) result from moral (e.g., prosocial, helping) behavior of the benefactor, and (b) engender subsequent moral motivation on the part of recipients.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McCullough et al. (2001)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Participants reported warm, pleasant, “tingling” feelings in their chest, they felt open to other people as their attention turned outward, and they felt motivated to help others and to become better people themselves.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Haidt et al. (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Among participants in both the United States and Japan, Rozin et al. (1999) found that feelings of contempt were differentially linked to violations of the ethic of community (e.g., violations of social hierarchy), whereas feelings of disgust were linked to violations of the ethic of divinity (e.g., actions that remind us of our animal nature, such as defecation, problems with hygiene, etc., as”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozin et al. (1999)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gratitude is a pleasant affective state, distinct from indebtedness, which implies an obligation and is often experienced as a negative state.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lewis (1992) views hubris as largely maladaptive, noting that hubristic individuals are inclined to distort and invent situations to enhance the self, which can lead to interpersonal problems.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lewis (1992)
plaindirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gratitude is another example of an other-oriented, positively valenced moral affect.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Tracy & Robins (2006), drawing on multiple methods, present compelling empirical evidence for these two types of pride.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tracy & Robins (2006)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People are inclined to feel gratitude specifically in response to another person’s benevolence—that is, when they are the recipient of benefits provided by another, especially when those benefits are unexpected and/or costly to the benefactor.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In a series of experimental studies, feelings of gratitude enhanced psychological resilience, physical health, and the quality of daily life (Emmons & McCullough 2003).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Emmons & McCullough 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These sub-scales, however, have very modest reliabilities, largely because they draw on only a few items.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, Coke and colleagues (1978) proposed a two-stage model of empathic responding, whereby perspective-taking facilitates empathic concern, which in turn leads to a desire to help.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Coke and colleagues (1978)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These responses often involve feelings of sympathy and concern for the other person, and often lead to helping behavior.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Empathic concern for others has been linked to altruistic helping behavior, whereas self-oriented personal distress is unrelated to altruism (Batson et al. 1988) and may in fact inter-fere with prosocial behavior (Davis&Oathout 1987; Eisenberg et al. 1990, 1993; Estrada 1995).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Batson et al. 1988
- Not checked yetcites Davis&Oathout 1987
- Not checked yetcites Eisenberg et al. 1990, 1993
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, the empathic individual’s focus remains on the experiences and needs of the other person, not on his or her own empathic response.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Little research has examined the relation between moral standards and moral emotional factors, much less their interactive influence in moderating the link between moral standards and people’s moral behavior.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Empathy and its close cousin sympathy have been cited as central to the human moral affective system for at least three reasons (Eisenberg et al. 2004, 2006).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eisenberg et al. 2004, 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, self-oriented personal distress involves a primary focus on the feelings, needs, and experiences of the empathizer.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although feelings of guilt generally arise from some failure or violation of moral standards, proneness to guilt (an affective disposition) is conceptually distinct from moral standards (a set of beliefs guiding one’s evaluation of behavior).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
People can anticipate their likely emotional reactions, such as guilt versus pride/self-approval, as they consider behavioral alternatives.
“People can anticipate their likely emotional reactions (e.g., guilt versus pride/self-approval) as they consider behavioral alternatives.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People’s anticipatory emotional reactions are typically inferred based on their history—that is, based on their past consequential emotions in reaction to similar actual behaviors and events.
“In our view, people’s anticipatory emotional reactions are typically inferred based on history—that is, based on their past consequential emotions in reaction to similar actual behaviors and events.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People’s moral standards are dictated in part by universal moral laws and in part by culturally specific proscriptions.
“People’s moral standards are dictated in part by universal moral laws, and in part by culturally specific proscriptions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The self is partly defined by interpersonal relations and group memberships.
“To the extent that the self is, in part, defined by our interpersonal relations and group memberships, it is possible to construe the behavior of an in-group member as reflecting on the self.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Moral behavior can be evaluated with respect to the welfare of the individual, his or her close relationships, or society.
“Thus, when considering the welfare of the individual, his or her close relationships, or society, feelings of guilt represent the moral emotion of choice.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This finding supports the notion that emotions guide behavior (Barrett, 1998; Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek, 2007) and corroborates current theoretical proposals that the anticipation of emotional consequences affects future behavior (Eder et al., 2015; Ridderinkhof, 2017).”
From Emotion understanding and the moral self-concept as motivators of prosocial behavior in middle childhood (2020) · cites this paper as Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek, 2007
In the citing paper
“This caveat might have contributed to the similar results in the meta-analyses on moral cognition and on ToM (rather than on empathy), given that emotion processing is thought to play a paramount role in real-world moral cognition (Krebs 2008; Tangney et al. 2007; Haidt 2001).”
From Parsing the neural correlates of moral cognition: ALE meta-analysis on morality, theory of mind, and empathy (2012) · cites this paper as Tangney et al. 2007
In the citing paper
“These feelings do not only entail negative self-reference, but also require a concern about other people and the consequences of one’s actions for others ( Taihara and Malik, 2016 , Tangney et al., 2007 ), as well as an overgeneralised feeling of control for other people’s wrongdoings ( Duan et al., 2021 , O'Connor et al., 2002 )”
From Self-blame-selective hyper-connectivity between anterior temporal and subgenual cortices predicts prognosis in major depressive disorder (2023) · cites this paper as Tangney et al., 2007
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Abstract
“Some clinicians have lamented the research literature’s heavy focus on dispositional shame (Leeming & Boyle 2002).”
§ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“Leeming D, Boyle M. Shame as a social phenomenon: a critical analysis of the concept of dispositional shame. Psychol. Psychother. Theory Res. Pract. 2004;77:375–396.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J.
- Affiliations
- George Mason University (US)
- Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030;,
- Harvey Mudd College (US)
- ORCID
- Tangney, June Price
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2007-01-01
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 345-372
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- PMC
- PMC3083636
- OpenAlex
- W2136267579
- Semantic Scholar
- 78b91838627eb2c02e07c2fb544acd004edac7e4
- Cited by
- 3,222
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 261 · 2025: 295 · 2024: 253 · 2023: 240 · 2022: 253 · 2021: 238 · 2020: 219 · 2019: 222 · 2018: 152 · 2017: 137 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 152 · 2014: 148 · 2013: 147 · 2012: 124
- FWCI
- 3.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (#R01 DA14694, R01DA014694)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Psychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Ethics in Business and Education
- Keywords
- moral emotions, moral behavior, shame, guilt, embarrassment, body shame, childhood abuse, collective shame, altitude, gratitude, empathy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anger, Body Image, Child, Child Abuse, Conscience, Defense Mechanisms, Emotions, Empathy, Guilt, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Morals, Shame, Social Behavior, Social Conformity, Personal Construct Theory, Virtues
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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