Motivational and emotional aspects of the self

Leary, Mark R.

doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658

Cited by 838Emotions and Moral BehaviorPersonality Traits and PsychologySocial and Intergroup Psychology

Motivational and emotional aspects of the self

Leary, Mark R.·2007·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658

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Abstract

Abstract Recent theory and research are reviewed regarding self-related motives (self-enhancement, self-verification, and self-expansion) and self-conscious emotions (guilt, shame, pride, social anxiety, and embarrassment), with an emphasis on how these motivational and emotional aspects of the self might be related. Specifically, these motives and emotions appear to function to protect people's social well-being. The motives to self-enhance, self-verify, and self-expand are partly rooted in people's concerns with social approval and acceptance, and self-conscious emotions arise in response to events that have real or imagined implications for others' judgments of the individual. Thus, these motives and emotions do not operate to maintain certain states of the self, as some have suggested, but rather to facilitate people's social interactions and relationships.

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Self-esteem may act as a sociometer, a monitor of one's acceptability to the group.
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From Why do people use Facebook? (2012) · cites this paper as Leary, 2007

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Keltner, D. J. (1996) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999396380312 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Relation of shame and guilt to constructive versus destructive responses to anger across the lifespan.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P. E., Hill-Barlow, D., et al. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.797 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Emotion and social behavior
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What's in a name: Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self.
Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.80.4.669 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
What's in a name: implicit self-esteem and the automatic self
Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.669 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
Self-Evaluation in Young Children
Stipek, D. J., Recchia, S. L., McClintic, S., & Lewis, M. (1992) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1166190 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Better-than-Average Effect
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The regulatory function of self-conscious emotion: Insights from patients with orbitofrontal damage.
Beer, J. S., Heerey, E. A., Keltner, D. J., Scabini, D., & Knight, R. T. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.594 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Falling in love: Prospective studies of self-concept change.
Aron, A. P., Paris, M., & Aron, E. N. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1102 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Self-enhancement among high-exposure survivors of the September 11th terrorist attack: resilience or social maladjustment?
Bonanno, G. A., Rennicke, C., & Dekel, S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.984 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Calibrating the sociometer: The relationship between interpersonal appraisals and the state self-esteem.
Leary, M. R., Haupt, A. L., Strausser, K. S., & Chokel, J. T. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1290 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Self-citation
Pancultural self-enhancement reloaded: A meta-analytic reply to Heine (2005).
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & Vevea, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.539 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Allure of negative feedback: Self-verification strivings among depressed persons.
Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., Krull, D. S., & Pelham, B. W. (1992) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.101.2.293 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
The construction of the self
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Understanding emotions
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"If only I weren't" versus "If only I hadn't": Distinguishing shame and guilt in conterfactual thinking.
Niedenthal, P. M., Tangney, J. P., & Gavanski, I. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.585 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
"If only I weren't" versus "If only I hadn't": Distinguishing shame and guilt in conterfactual thinking.
Niedenthal, P. M., Tangney, J. P., & Gavanski, I. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.4.585 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Situational Detenninants of Shame and Guilt in Young Adulthood
Tangney, J. P. (1992) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167292182011 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE SELF-ESTEEM MOTIVE THE SELF-ESTEEM SYSTEM AS A SOCIOMETER
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Portrait of the self-enhancer: Well adjusted and well liked or maladjusted and friendless?
Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M., & McDowell, N. K. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.165 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Why Susie sells seashells by the seashore: Implicit egotism and major life decisions.
Pelham, B. W., Mirenberg, M. C., & Jones, J. T. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.4.469 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Are self-enhancing cognitions associated with healthy or unhealthy biological profiles?
Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M., & McDowell, N. K. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.605 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
From social anxiety to social phobia : multiple perspectives
Hofmann, S. G., & DiBartolo, P. M. (2001) · Allyn and Bacon eBooks · Cited by 294 · see citing works
When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals
Masson, J. M., & McCarthy, S. (1994) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Vicarious Shame and Guilt
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When you and I are "we," you are not threatening: The role of self-expansion in social comparison.
Gardner, W. L., Gabriel, S., & Hochschild, L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.2.239 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Reconceptualizing Individual Differences in Self-Enhancement Bias: An Interpersonal Approach.
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Personality Moderators of Reactions to Interpersonal Rejection: Depression and Trait Self-Esteem
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Implicit Self-Esteem in Japan: Name Letters and Birthday Numbers
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Self‐expansion Model of Motivation and Cognition in Close Relationships and Beyond
Aron, A. P., Aron, E. N., & Norman, C. C. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998557.ch19 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Embarrassment: poise and peril in everyday life
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On building, defending, and regulating the self : a psychological perspective
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Self-Evaluation Processes
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Self-enhancement and Superiority Biases in Social Comparison
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Calibrating the sociometer: The relationship between interpersonal appraisals and the state self-esteem.
Leary, M. R., Haupt, A. L., Strausser, K. S., et al. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1290 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
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Self-anchoring and differentiation processes in the minimal group setting.
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Interpersonal Functions of the Self-Esteem Motive
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Deconfounding the effects of dominance and social acceptance on self-esteem.
Leary, M. R., Cottrell, C. A., & Phillips, M. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.898 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Self-citation
How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Js: Implicit Egotism and Interpersonal Attraction.
Jones, J. T., Pelham, B. W., Carvallo, M., & Mirenberg, M. C. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.665 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Developmental transformations in appraisals for pride, shame, and guilt.
Mascolo, M. F., & Fischer, K. W. (1995) · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Fear of death and the judgment of social transgressions: A multidimensional test of terror management theory
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Fear of death and the judgment of social transgressions: A multidimensional test of terror management theory.
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Shame-proneness, guilt-proneness, and psychological symptoms
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Collective Guilt
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When does introspection bear fruit? Self-reflection, self-insight, and interpersonal choices.
Hixon, J. G., & Swann, W. B. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.64.1.35 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
The Curse of the Self: Self-Awareness, Egotism, and the Quality of Human Life
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Should we create a niche or fall in line? Identity negotiation and small group effectiveness.
Jr. Swann William, B., Milton, L. P., & Polzer, J. T. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.2.238 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Relationship Closeness as Including Other in the Self: Cognitive Underpinnings and Measures
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How self-evaluations relate to being liked by others: Integrating sociometer and attachment perspectives.
Srivastava, S., & Beer, J. S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.966 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Egotism and attribution.
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Cultural Differences in Self-Evaluation
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., & Lehman, D. R. (2001) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022101032004004 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Selective Interaction as a Strategy for Identity Maintenance: An Affect Control Model
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The Quest for Self-Insight
Robins, R. W., & John, O. P. (1997) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50026-3 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Shared Activities and Marital Satisfaction: Causal Direction and Self-Expansion versus Boredom
Reissman, C., Aron, A. P., & Bergen, M. R. (1993) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/026540759301000205 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Calibrating the sociometer: The relational contingencies of self-esteem.
Murray, S., Griffin, D. W., Rose, P., & Bellavia, G. M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.63 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Egocentric definitions of traits and abilities in social judgment
Dunning, D., & Cohen, G. L. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.341 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Why is Self-Enhancement Low in Certain Collectivist Cultures?
Kurman, J. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103256474 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
On the Nature of Embarrassabllity: Shyness, Social Evaluation, and Social Skill
Miller, R. S. (1995) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00812.x · Cited by 193 · see citing works
The Curse of the Self
Leary, M. R. (2004) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195172423.001.0001 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Self-citation
Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal Processes
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Self-Enhancement as a Buffer Against Extreme Adversity: Civil War in Bosnia and Traumatic Loss in the United States
Bonanno, G. A., Field, N. P., Kovacevic, A., & Kaltman, S. I. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202282005 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
The social self: Cognitive, interpersonal and intergroup perspectives
Otten, S. (2002) · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Who Wants Out When the Going Gets Good? Psychological Investment and Preference for Self-Verifying College Roommates
Swann, W. B., & Pelham, B. W. (2002) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/152988602760124856 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Interpersonal evaluations following threats to self: Role of self-esteem.
Heatherton, T. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.725 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Self-Enhancement: Is it Restricted to Individualistic Cultures?
Kurman, J. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672012712013 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Deconfounding the effects of dominance and social acceptance on self-esteem.
Leary, M. R., Cottrell, C. A., & Phillips, M. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.898 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citation
Confusions of Self With Close Others
Mashek, D. J., Aron, A. P., & Boncimino, M. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202250220 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
A comparison of three models of attitude-behavior relationships in the studying behavior domain
Leone, L., Perugini, M., & Ercolani, A. P. (1999) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(199903/05)29:2/3 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Can children recognize pride?
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Self‐enhancement in Japan and America
Brown, J. D., & Kobayashi, C. (2002) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/1467-839x.00101 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Desirable responding triggered by affect: Automatic egotism?
Paulhus, D. L., & Levitt, K. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.2.245 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
The Nature and Severity of Self-Reported Embarrassing Circumstances
Miller, R. S. (1992) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167292182010 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-enhancement and self-assessment in achievement behavior
Trope, Y. (1986) · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Should we create a niche or fall in line? Identity negotiation and small group effectiveness.
Swann, W. B., Milton, L. P., & Polzer, J. T. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.2.238 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Social blushing.
Leary, M. R., Britt, T. W., Cutlip, W. D., & Templeton, J. L. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.446 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
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Proneness to Shame and the Narcissistic Personality
Gramzow, R. H., & Tangney, J. P. (1992) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167292183014 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Self-presentational concerns and social anxiety: The role of generalized impression expectancies
Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., & Campbell, C. D. (1988) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(88)90032-3 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
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The inner eye
Humphrey, N. K., & Four, C. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Do Chinese Self-Enhance or Self-Efface? It's a Matter of Domain
Yik, M., Bond, M. H., & Paulhus, D. L. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298244006 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
When does introspection bear fruit? Self-reflection, self-insight, and interpersonal choices.
Hixon, J. G., & Swann, W. B. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.35 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Self-Verification Motives at the Collective Level of Self-Definition.
Chen, S., Chen, K. Y., & Shaw, L. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.77 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
The Evolution of the Human Self: Tracing the Natural History of Self‐Awareness
Leary, M. R., & Buttermore, N. (2003) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1046/j.1468-5914.2003.00223.x · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cultural variations in optimistic and pessimistic bias: Do Easterners really expect the worst and Westerners really expect the best when predicting future life events?
Chang, E. C., Asakawa, K., & Sanna, L. J. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.3.476 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Is There an "I" in "Team"? The Role of the Self in Group-Serving Judgments.
Sherman, D. K., & Kim, H. S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.108 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Self and self-expansion in relationships.
Aron, A. P., & Aron, E. N. A. D. T. (1996) · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Defensive pride and consensus: strength in imaginary numbers.
McGregor, I., Nail, P. R., Marigold, D. C., & Kang, S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.978 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Where Is the Evidence for Pancultural Self-Enhancement? A Reply to Sedikides, Gaertner, and Toguchi (2003).
Heine, S. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.531 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self‐Serving Attributions for Performance in Naturalistic Settings: A Meta‐Analytic Review1
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The Invalidity of Disclaimers about the Effects of Social Feedback on Self-Esteem
Leary, M. R., Gallagher, B., Fors, E., Buttermore, N., Baldwin, E. R., Kennedy, K., & Mills, A. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203029005007 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
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The Evocation of Moral Emotions in Intergroup Contexts: The Distinction Between Collective Guilt and Collective Shame
Lickel, B. A., Schmader, T., & Barquissau, M. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139106931.005 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Seeking self-evaluative feedback: the interactive role of global self-esteem and specific self-views.
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The "I," the "we," and the "when": A meta-analysis of motivational primacy in self-definition.
Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., Vevea, J. L., & Iuzzini, J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.83.3.574 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-Esteem and Favoritism Toward Novel In-Groups: The Self as an Evaluative Base.
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Ashamed to be an American? The role of identification in predicting vicarious shame for anti-Arab prejudice after 9–11
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Egocentrism in groups: Self-serving biases or logical information processing?
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Cultural variations on optimistic and pessimistic bias for self versus a sibling: Is there evidence for self-enhancement in the West and for self-criticism in the East when the referent group is specified?
Chang, E. C., & Asakawa, K. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.569 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Seeking self-evaulative feedback: The interactive role of global self-esteem and specific self-views.
Bernichon, T., Cook, K. E., & Brown, J. D. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.194 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Facial expressions of emotion and psychopathology in adolescent boys.
Keltner, D. J., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer‐Loeber, M. (1995) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.104.4.644 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
The Role of Ability Judgments in Self-Handicapping
McCrea, S. M., & Hirt, E. R. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672012710013 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-relevant emotions.
Tangney, J. P. (2003) · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Social sources and interactive functions of emotion: The case of embarrassment.
Miller, R. S., & Leary, M. R. (1992) · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citation
Evaluating one's abilities: Shortcuts and stumbling blocks on the road to self-knowledge
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Different Partners, Different Selves: Strategic Verification of Circumscribed Identities
Swann, W. B., Bosson, J. K., & Pelham, B. W. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672022812007 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
‘Similarity breeds liking’ revisited: The moderating role of commitment
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The "I," the "we," and the "when": A meta-analysis of motivational primacy in self-definition.
Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., Vevea, J. L., et al. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.574 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Myself and me
Lewis, M. (1994) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511565526.004 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Motivated Social Cognition: The Case of Self-Serving Information Processing
von Hippel, W., Lakin, J. L., & Shakarchi, R. J. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205274899 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Facial expressions of emotion and psychopathology in adolescent boys.
Keltner, D. J., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer‐Loeber, M. (1995) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.104.4.644 · Cited by 81 · see citing works

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Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly
Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887 · Cited by 1,728 · see citing works
Self-citation
Why do people use Facebook?
Nadkarni, A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.11.007 · Cited by 1,276 · see citing works
The Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Well‐Being: A Meta‐Analysis
Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015) · Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12051 · Cited by 1,237 · see citing works
Reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection: A multimotive model
Smart Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0015250 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
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Authors: Leary, M. R.
Affiliations: Duke University (US)
Corresponding author: Leary, Mark R.
ORCID: Leary, Mark R.
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2007-01-01
Volume: 58
Issue: 1
Pages: 317-344
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085658
OpenAlex: W2119994416
Semantic Scholar: 91b1dc0423e12afdddd50aadb5735daea2403768
Cited by: 838
References: 226
Citations by year: 2026: 31 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 50 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 1.84
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: self-enhancement, self-verification, self-expansion, self-conscious emotions, guilt, shame, pride, social anxiety, embarrassment, social approval, social acceptance, social well-being, social interaction, interpersonal relationships
MeSH terms: Anxiety, Awareness, Defense Mechanisms, Ego, Emotions, Guilt, Humans, Internal-External Control, Interpersonal Relations, Motivation, Self Concept, Shame, Social Desirability, Social Perception, Personal Construct Theory

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